1 TERRORISM IN CANADA Terrorism in Canada Ramandeep Kaur School of Criminal Justice & Security, Justice Institution of British Columbia 23WI Research Project (LAWS-4003-NWP04) Md Asif Hossain, Nina Bennett April 5th, 2023 2 TERRORISM IN CANADA Abstract The presented capstone research project provides the information about “Terrorism in Canada”. Terrorism itself is a vast topic following a controversy about its appropriate definition. Canada has faced less terrorism attacks but it is absolutely affected by the terrorist attacks on its neighbor country the United States. The given capstone research project is aimed to shed light over the top terrorism threats in Canada, basically the threats developed in 20th and the early 21st century. It describes about the main reasons behind the terrorism. To add more, it focuses on the impact of the terrorism on the public and the society. Furthermore, it provides some measures and recommendations to tackle with this issue. There is a general description about the justice for the victims of the terrorism. It also brings the efforts of the Canadian Government in to the eyes of the reader. Keywords: Terrorism”, “Defining Terrorism”, “Terrorism in Canada”, “Terror”, “Impact”, “Reason”, “Solution”, “Terrorist Attacks”, and “Canadian Government”. 3 TERRORISM IN CANADA Terrorism in Canada Terrorism did not abruptly and unexpectedly arise on the global scene in the late 1960s, despite the fact that it did not seem to be receiving much attention from the general public in Western democracies prior to that time. Terrorism has a lengthy history, going at least as far back as Biblical times, and has been used as a political tool by both states and non-state organizations. But, a number of variables came together after 1945, particularly from the late 1960s to the present, to give terrorism a special prominence (Charters, 2008). Although terrorism is not a new issue, during the past 20 years there has been a global surge in the attention that the media, governments, and academics have given to this conduct. The quantity of studies on political terrorism in highly industrialized democracies has expanded as a result of this heightened attention (Ross, 1988). Terrorism has extensive roots around the globe. Terrorism is an indirect method that use fear or terror caused by violent attacks, force, or the threat of employing it against one group of people who are directly targeted, their property, in order to frighten and coerce another group of people who are indirectly targeted and influence their behavior in order to promote political goals. The core of such a scheme is barbaric violence, which is what is referred to as a terrorist attack. A credible threat of violence can also constitute an act of terrorism (Schwenkenbecher, 2012). “The use of extreme violence or the threat of using it, in order to further a specific political, religious, racial, or ideological cause is referred to as terrorism”, according to the definition given by the U.K‟s jurisdiction (Simeon, 2019). According to the US, “Violence and acts that endanger human life that violate federal or state criminal laws or that would be considered crimes if they were done within federal or state borders are considered acts of terrorism” (Simeon, 2019). The legal definition of terrorism in Canada includes two basic components: terrorist behavior and terrorist group, and it seem to be comprehensive and in-depth. It also includes what is typically thought to be terrorism, a politically motivated attack meant to frighten society as a whole and sway governments to 4 TERRORISM IN CANADA choose a certain course of action (Simeon, 2019). The Canadian definition is, “An essential service, facility, or system, whether public or private, is intended to be seriously interfered with or seriously disrupted with the aim to cause death, serious bodily harm, substantial risk to the public's health, severe property damage, or all of the above is called terrorism” (Simeon, 2019). Very destructive and hurtful, it also undermines and diminishes the very objectives it claims to be pursuing. This is especially true when extreme violence, such as terrorism, is used to further a cause, no matter how justifiable, noble, or important it may be. The history of the human race has abundantly demonstrated this. Any form of terrorism, whether it be state-sponsored, religious, right or left-wing, or cyber, is morally repulsive and should be condemned by everyone who supports or participates in it (Simeon, 2019). It has become more challenging to implement successful counterterrorism tactics and policies at both the international and transnational levels due to the lack of a comprehensive and universal definition of terrorism. To effectively confront terrorism in all of its forms, a common understanding of what terrorism is and how it should be characterized must be reached (Simeon, 2019). This project is based on the research on “Terrorism in Canada” which aims to provide the information about the threats of this particular phenomenon. Background The key processes that shaped terrorism in the second half of the 20th century, decolonization, the Cold War, the transportation and communication revolutions, have not been immune to Canada, which has a long history of political violence. These developments gave rise to an increasingly deadly brand of terrorism that was primarily driven by nationalism, influenced by a “cult of the guerrilla,” supported by governments, and had a truly global scope. With a few notable exceptions, however, Canada‟s experience with terrorism was less severe, deadly, and disruptive than that of many other nations (Charters, 2008). The Front de libération du Québec campaign (1963–1970) and the 1985‟s the Air India bombing are examples of these exceptions 5 TERRORISM IN CANADA (Charters, 2008). Yet, Canada responded to significant domestic terrorism efforts with a robust, even severe response that was well-supported by the general people. But prior to 9/11, the Canadian public did not perceive themselves as being particularly vulnerable to terrorism, with the exception of the 1970 October Crisis period (Charters, 2008). 366 acts of domestic terrorism occurred in Canada between 1960 and 1989, according to a 1991 report done for the Attorney General of Canada. Over half (47%) of these were caused by nationalist or separatist incidents, which mostly happened in Quebec. The next-highest number of incidents (33 percent), which were only found in British Columbia, was motivated by religious issues (Charters, 2008). Throughout the following ten years, there were a few domestic incidents that ranged from racially driven violence to animal rights and anti-abortion terrorism (Charters, 2008). Prior to 9/11, terrorism against Canadian interests abroad was uncommon. Only 14 similar events from 1968 to 1987 were found in a Department of National Defense assessment published in 1988. Less than half of these attacks specifically targeted Canadians or Canadian interests; the remainder were assaulted inadvertently, frequently just because they were in the wrong location at the wrong time. That also seemed to apply to the few incidents that occurred between 1993 and 2001 (Charters, 2008). In these foreign situations, six Canadians perished, although none of them had any political or other significance for Canada. There was no ongoing effort abroad that had Canada as its aim. Yet, the culprits, targets, and assault strategies were in line with historical worldwide patterns (Charters, 2008). Causes of Terrorism Terrorism is phenomenon that has grown on the basis of the several reasons• Socio-Economic and Demographic Strain- Some academics contend that economic hardship, such as poverty and intra-national inequality, is the primary cause of terrorism. A scholar proposes the concept of “relative deprivation”, according to which violence 6 TERRORISM IN CANADA arises when there is a mismatch between what people believe they deserve and what they actually receive as a result of the economic (distributive) system. Frustration is a result of poor structural economic situations, which increases the likelihood of violence. The countries where terrorism originates should be concerned about the connection between economic hardship and terrorism. For instance, when economic hardship is prevalent, terrorist organizations should find it simpler and less expensive to enlist disgruntled supporters or to get financial support from supporters (Krieger & Meierrieks, 2011). By lowering the opportunity costs of violence, a lack of non-violent economic activities may potentially increase the number of terrorist organizations. So, it is anticipated that relative economic hardship will increase terrorism by fostering frustration and reducing the opportunity costs of violence. When economic deprivation is considered worldwide with regard to the target countries of terrorism, economic success may invite assaults (Krieger & Meierrieks, 2011). Some academics contend that modernization actually encourages terrorism. Modernization includes, among other things, changes in the economy such as economic growth, new modes of communication and way of life such as the transition from rural to urban civilizations, and new ideologies such as Western ideology. These elements could lead to complaints about demographic and socioeconomic pressure. For instance, economic development may be linked to a reorganization of the labor market, giving rise to complaints among “modernization losers” who lose their jobs as a result of economic change (Krieger & Meierrieks, 2011). As another illustration, contemporary technologies of communication might undermine established social norms and cause social unrest, while terrorist groups might exploit them to more effectively spread their ideologies. The majority of complaints are caused by the shift from a traditional to a modern culture. Here, terrorists are able to take advantage of the frustrations of “modernization losers” associated with economic unhappiness, new ways of living that are alienating, or other challenges to conventional societal norms, increasing the likelihood of recruitment, funding, or other types of support (Krieger & Meierrieks, 2011). This process is especially important for the nations where terrorism originates. In general, socioeconomic and demographic developments associated with modernization are likely to have an impact on conflict. Empirical analyses have a hard time capturing these changes. To illustrate the effect of 7 TERRORISM IN CANADA modernization on terrorism, scholars frequently turn to specific socioeconomic such as low educational attainment and demographic such as population increase aspects (Krieger & Meierrieks, 2011). • Political and institutional order- It is also asserted that the political and institutional order affects terrorism. Whether one political system is better equipped to combat terrorism than another is a topic of continuous academic discussion. Democratic governments can provide non-violent ways for people to express their disapproval, but they are unable to implement “hard” counter-terrorism measures due to a duty to respect civil liberties. This may reduce the likelihood of terrorism production from a country of origin standpoint, but it may also raise the likelihood of terrorist strikes target country perspective. Autocratic governments can profit from their ability to oppress, which may also lead to complaints about political emancipation. Low political openness may increase the chance of the birth of terrorism, but it decreases the likelihood of terrorist attacks. There isn‟t generally agreement on which political system can defeat terrorism (Krieger & Meierrieks, 2011). But the fact that most domestic terrorists have successfully assimilated into the societies they target is a problem. Even though the Toronto suspects were blatantly anti-Canadian for using terrorism to harm other Canadians, they nevertheless had a distinctive sense of being “Canadian” (Wilner & Dubouloz, 2010). • Identity and cultural clash- Violence could also be caused by a clash of civilizations. Conflict between groups within a country or between groups in different countries organized along civilization lines (e.g., Islamic countries versus the West) may increase when groups demonstrate various identities, for example, different religions or ethnicities (Krieger & Meierrieks, 2011). It should be simpler (less expensive) for terrorist organizations to rally support against rival identity groups (identified, e.g., by ethnic or religious fractionalization measures). This is especially evident when terrorists rely on 8 TERRORISM IN CANADA ideologies related to identities that emphasize the superiority of each identity (such as claiming to represent the “one authentic faith”). Such a worldview removes moral restraints and boosts organizational cohesion, which reduces costs and increases the effectiveness of terrorism (Krieger & Meierrieks, 2011). Research Question Initially, the research question was, “What are the anti-terrorism efforts that Canadian Government is doing to control the Terrorism?” As this question contains the information that is quite broad in the concept of this Capstone Research Project, so the author has narrowed down the research question to focus upon more specific information. Now, the research question is, “What could be the top threats of the terrorism in Canada?” In addition, the following sub-questions will aid in exploring more details about the topic at hand: • What could be the possible reasons and impact of this phenomenon? • What could be the possible suggestions to mitigate this issue? • Despite facing significant acts of Terrorism how has Canada government been responded to this phenomenon? Literature Review The literature review depicts about the threats of the terrorism that Canada is facing. The book “Building Resilience against Terrorism: Canada‟s Counter-terrorism Strategy” is written by Vic Toews (Minister of Public Safety) explains that Terrorism can strike anywhere, including Canada. There are numerous domestic and foreign extremist groups in Canada, some of which carry out acts of terrorism locally or promote terrorism outside of Canada‟s borders. Attempts have been made to influence or force people of Canadian society to support extreme causes that are harmful to the country‟s peace, order, and good government. The security of Canada and its 9 TERRORISM IN CANADA residents is seriously and persistently threatened by terrorism. The government must respond to threats in a way that protects Canadians‟ freedom and security, according to Canadians (Toews, 2022). With the help of the Postpositivist Worldview the author has identified the major issue (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The biggest threat to the national security of Canada is violent Islamist extremism. The interests of the Canadian government have been directly endangered by a number of Islamist extremist organizations that have recognized Canada as a legitimate target. Moreover, violent “homegrown” extreme Sunni Islamists pose a threat of violence. Terrorist threats to Canada can originate from a variety of places, as the 1985 bombing of Air India showed. Whether it be a direct attack against Canada and its allies or the use of land to fund terrorism abroad, other foreign terrorist groups such as Hizballah or the surviving Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam continue to represent a threat. Domestic radicals motivated by a particular subject may go beyond peaceful protest to threaten terrorist acts at home. For the foreseeable future, terrorist attacks will continue to pose a threat to Canadian interests around the globe (Toews, 2022). The threat of terrorism facing Canada is not limited to the current incarnation of al Qaida-inspired terrorism. In order to further their objectives, other nationalist, politico-religious, or multi-issue organizations still use terrorist tactics. As a result, terrorism may be viewed as a strategy that is linked to the forces that are driving political violence at a given time as well as the existence of people and organizations that are willing to use violence to further their objectives (Toews, 2022). Sunni Islamist Extremism Since at least the 1970s, violent incidents linked to Sunni Islamist extremism have periodically marred the growth of the terrorist threat. The biggest threat to Canada‟s national security at the moment is violence motivated by Sunni Islamist extremism. Sunni Islamist extremism that is rooted abroad has shown to be flexible and resilient despite facing significant 10 TERRORISM IN CANADA pressure for the past ten years. Numerous extremist groups have conducted activities that directly threaten Canada‟s international interests or have stated that Canada is a legitimate target for strikes (Toews, 2022). With Usama bin Laden‟s death in May 2011, Al Qaida has been directed by Ayman al Zawahiri, and the organization continues to be at the forefront of Sunni Islamic extremism, providing an ideology and motivation for potential terrorists all over the world. Al Qaeda‟s capabilities have been limited in recent years by international counterterrorism initiatives, but other Sunni Islamist organizations linked to Al Qaeda, both formally or by using Al Qaeda as an example have developed and now pose a serious threat to Canada and the rest of the world. Despite Usama bin Laden‟s death, the lone narrative that Islam is being attacked by the West persists and is generally accepted by Al Qaeda affiliates (Toews, 2022). Al Qaida in the Arabian Peninsula and Al Shabaab, in particular, show how the threat posed by Sunni Islamic terrorists has spread. Although these organizations and others like them may have some common ground with Al Qaeda, they mostly continue to operate independently. Al-Qaida in the Arabian Peninsula, which has its headquarters in Yemen, has worked to destabilize the region, but they have also planned international assaults that may have harmed Canada, such the bombing attempt on Northwest Airlines Flight 253 in Canadian airspace in December 2009 (Toews, 2022). The Al Qaeda was also highlighted as a major threat on the 10th world summit on counterterrorism (Gray, 2011). Radicalization of Violent Homegrown Extremists Before the middle of the 2000s, when a number of highly publicized events in Europe, such as the Madrid train bombings and the 7 July attacks in London, brought the term “homegrown terrorism” into the public consciousness, it was mostly missing (Millett, 2020). The term “homegrown terrorism” has been used in Canada to describe alleged efforts at violence motivated by Islam, such as the 2006 Toronto 18 bomb plot (Millett, 2020). Al-Qaida affiliates 11 TERRORISM IN CANADA may threaten to carry out terrorist attacks from overseas, but violent “homegrown” Sunni Islamist fanatics provide a threat of bloodshed within Canada. Homegrown extremists are people who have been radicalized by extremist ideology and who favor using violence against the nations where they were born or where they currently reside in order to achieve their goals. Individual Western extremists who were motivated by but not affiliated with Sunni Islamist radicals abroad have tried a number of terrorist strikes (Toews, 2022). 18 people were detained in Ontario in 2006 for being a part of a terrorist organization that planned to bomb a number of important Canadian institutions (Toews, 2022). 11 of these people were subsequently found guilty (Toews, 2022). Mohamed Momin Khawaja, another Canadian, was convicted in 2008 for his participation in a botched terrorist plot in the United Kingdom. All around the nation, there are still people suspected of engaging in a range of actions related to Islamist extremism, including Canadians and others. Some of these people are disseminating violent propaganda, collecting funds for terrorism, facilitating travel to areas of international conflict, and connecting with like-minded extremists both domestically and abroad (Toews, 2022). Many nations, including Canada, have recognized the difficulties that domestic extremism poses. Sunni Islamist extremists are especially connected to supporters around the globe thanks to the increased accessibility of Internet propaganda and sophisticated networking technologies. By exploiting English-language resources, reaching out to susceptible people in Western nations, and encouraging “do-it-yourself” terrorism, extremist leaders have aimed to foster domestic extremism. Moreover, radicalized Canadians have travelled to international hotspots like Pakistan, Somalia, and Yemen to train with or engage in combat with Sunni extremist groups. These people might engage in terrorism abroad, come home and incite others to violence, or come home and commit terrorist acts on Canadian soil (Toews, 2022). Domestic Issue-Based Extremism For all liberal democracies striving to stem the violent extremism of their own citizens 12 TERRORISM IN CANADA while upholding civic rights and liberties, the ongoing global “war on terror” underlines a basic conundrum. This issue arises as international conflict shifts from superpower competition and interstate war to domestic terrorism, radicalization to violence, Internet propaganda, and the targeting and recruitment of weak people. Because extremist violence is fostered by and committed in public settings like schools, houses of worship, civil society, and homes, these new dangers transfer the war, as conventionally understood, to the home front (Jacoby, 2016). Lowlevel violence by domestic issue-based groups continues to exist in Canada, albeit not on the same scale as other nations. Such extremism frequently arises from genuine or imagined grievances related to the advocacy of many causes, including animal rights, racial supremacy, environmentalism, and anti-capitalism. Less dangerous are alternative historical causes of domestic extremism in Canada. Even though they are few in number, some groups in Canada have gone beyond peaceful protest to incite, imply, and advocate violent acts. Continued vigilance is necessary because it is still possible that certain groups or even a lone individual could decide to embrace a more violent, terrorist method to attain their intended aims, as was witnessed in Oklahoma City in 1995 and in Norway in 2011 (Toews, 2022). Methodology The author has focused on “Terrorism in Canada” in order to carry out further study on the issue of “Terrorism”. The author has decided to research “The Top Terrorist Threats in Canada” since there is a lot of content on this issue. Exploring the sources that might address the main research question as well as one of their sub-topics is the specific goal of the literature. The author has used resources like the JIBC library database, Google Scholar, Google, Jstor, etcetera. for this purpose. This has covered the books, articles, and journals. The author has used some keywords that are mentioned at the beginning of the project to find the relevant content regarding the topic. The author has taken the help of the book “Research Design Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches” to choose the appropriate research design. Firstly, the author 13 TERRORISM IN CANADA opted for the „Qualitative Research Design‟ because all the material that author had found was providing qualitative data information. After researching a lot, the author has found some statistical data as well. So, now the author has decided to go with the „Mixed Approach‟. Mixed method approach contains both the qualitative and quantitative data. This research method follows both open-ended and close-ended data (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The process of mixed methods started in middle to late 1980‟s (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). During the time period of 1959, to study psychological traits the Campbell and Fisk used numerous methods. Although their work revolves around quantitative material only but others got inspiration to include qualitative data in their research (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The whole research project is based on the secondary research. To add more, the postpositivist, transformative, and pragmatic worldviews serve as the foundation for the study. The question of the Canadian government‟s response may be fairly clearly defined with the aid of the transformative worldview. The postpositivist viewpoint can be helpful in addressing the issues and it is suitable for quantitative approach. The pragmatic point of view is essential for developing solutions. The pragmatic worldview is suitable for mixed methods approach as well. These three worldviews will serve as the study's foundation (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The research‟s inclusion criteria require that only Canadian terrorism be studied. But, in order to define terrorism, attention is paid to how it is defined in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. The material obtained from peer-reviewed journals that are published in English is the base for all of the research. Interviews with experts and news reports have been excluded. Results The terrorism in Canada has several affects on the people- 14 TERRORISM IN CANADA Post Traumatic Disorder Research on terrorism frequently examines the outcome of post-traumatic stress disorder. 1-year prevalence ranges from 0.9 to 3.5% in the general population of North and South America and Europe (Rigutto et al., 2021). PTSD is more common among people who have been both directly and indirectly exposed to terrorist acts. Most of the studies included in this evaluation evaluated such demographics since there was an increase in terrorism research after 9/11. PTSD has been reported to be prevalent in about 30% of direct survivors (Rigutto et al., 2021). Major Depressive Disorder Studies that examine how terrorism affects MDD rates are harder to find. Rates of newonset MDD following the 9/11 attacks were 26% in those who were in the immediate area of the attacks and 45% in those who had a close friend or family member who had been exposed to trauma. 15.3% of community residents and rescue personnel were found to have MDD 10-15 years after the attack. Police personnel had a prevalence of 30.3% and non-traditional rescuers of 17.2% of MDD 12 years after the attack, respectively (Rigutto et al., 2021). Anxiety Disorders Those who have survived a terrorist attack, particularly those who have had physical injuries, appear to experience anxiety disorders at higher rates than the overall population. 5.8% of responding officers showed signs of comorbid anxiety and PTSD, and 47.7% had both MDD and anxiety disorder in the 10–11 years after the 9/11 attacks (Rigutto et al., 2021). The respondents‟ perceptions of the repercussions of terrorism threats were mainly focused on two areas: personal effects and society implications. Even though the majority of respondents felt they had not personally been impacted, several did admit that the danger of terrorism had changed their attitudes and habits. In addition, many people expressed their 15 TERRORISM IN CANADA worries about the threat‟s implications on society and Canada‟s response to it (Gibson et al., 2007). The majority of participants, as was already noted, did not feel that the threat of terrorism had any impact on them. According to some reports, people frequently responded, “Oh, normally I feel safe,” “Not personally, not on a personal level,” and “It doesn‟t even really affect me in my day-to-day living” when asked if the danger of the terrorism had affected them personally (Gibson et al., 2007). Yet, several people reported effects centered on emotional responses including dread, paranoia, and wrath. Also, some survey participants reported alterations in their behavior, such as an avoidance of particular public events. While some respondents steered clear of specific locations, others confessed that they had altered their conduct among people from particular racial and religious backgrounds; this mostly involved being aware of any potentially offending language and avoiding discussions of contentious topics (Gibson et al., 2007). Most respondents agreed that terrorist acts and threats had an influence on Canadian communities and society as a whole, in contrast to their views on personal impacts. Due to this threat, some respondents claimed that society as a whole had grown more paranoid. However, some people expressed concern over the potential loss of our personal liberties in an effort to boost security in Canada (Gibson et al., 2007). There was also a great deal of worry about racial tension increasing as a result of the danger, as well as the potential for worsening segregation and discrimination against some minority groups. This gives a raise to the cultural tension (Gibson et al., 2007). While the bulk of the overall effects described were unfavourable, several respondents admitted that Canadians‟ greater awareness of terrorism and its concerns had some beneficial 16 TERRORISM IN CANADA effects. Some respondents claimed that terrorism brought victims together, and others talked about how people are becoming more aware of global issues and other cultures (Gibson et al., 2007). Discussion Government’s Response The Transformative worldview has helped the author to find about the strategies of the Canadian Government (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). To counter the immediate threats posed by terrorism, law enforcement uses a variety of strategies (Stevens, 2005). Despite having experienced serious terrorist attacks, Canada has historically responded to terrorist offences with caution (Amirault et al., 2016). Canada, like other nations such as the United Kingdom and the United States, has generally responded to terrorism through legislation. The “criminal justice model” is the application of legal sanctions to counteract terrorist conduct, whereby terrorist behavior is recognized as a separate legal category of crime. Yet after September 11, the Canadian government passed the Anti Terrorism Act (ATA), which for the first time made offences related to terrorism illegal. On December 18, 2001, 98 days after the September 11th attacks, the Anti-Terrorism Act of Canada (Bill C-36) received royal assent (Amirault et al., 2016). The 1982-established Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms has served to restrain Canadian responses to terrorist attacks throughout the past 32 years. This was also accurate when Bill C-36 was being written. The events of September 11 changed not just how terrorism is perceived globally but also how terrorist action is defined in Canada. In the fifteen years since September 11, Canada has witnessed a rise in the number of terrorists driven by an extremist interpretation of Islam (Amirault et al., 2016). The Canadian Criminal Code now includes 17 TERRORISM IN CANADA specific offences related to terrorism as a result of the ATA (CCC). The CCC was changed under the premise that, in light of September 11, the crime classifications that had previously been used to prosecute terrorist offenders were insufficient because they tended to be reactive rather than proactive. Prosecutors continued to respond to terrorist threats by using immigration law rather than criminal law in the years immediately following the enactment of the ATA, and the first terrorism-specific charges were not brought until 2004 (Amirault et al., 2016). Notwithstanding the ATA‟s focus on proactive responses, public safety, and security, the CCC revisions weren‟t without their detractors. Legal experts questioned the expediency with which these amendments were made as well as the necessity of revising the CCC. The broad definition of “terrorism” was one of the main points of criticism. Roach pointed out that the Bill C-36 definition of terrorism was broader than either the British or American definitions. He added a warning that Canadians who were merely participating in political protests such as those for environmental issues, Aboriginal land claims, or anti-globalization marches could be subject to the Act‟s stiff penalties, additional investigative authorities, and criminal categories (Amirault et al., 2016). Momin Khawaja was detained in 2004 for his involvement in a terrorist conspiracy that was meant to be carried out in the United Kingdom. He was the first person to be charged under the ATA (Amirault et al., 2016). Khawaja was to offer his colleagues the knowledge they required to remotely detonate explosive devices. The Toronto 18 network was thwarted two years later while planning to detonate large-scale bombs against media organizations and offices of the government. Namouh was detained and ultimately found guilty in 2007 for taking part in an online network that disseminated terrorist propaganda (Amirault et al., 2016). The interconnectedness of offenders and the availability of resources in today‟s globalized world present new challenges to law enforcement, even though some terrorist incidents that took place 18 TERRORISM IN CANADA in Canada during the 1980s and 1990s were motivated by imported grievances that are conflicts that originated outside of Canada. The ATA has an impact on every part of the criminal justice system, but since terrorism-related offences are now crimes, prosecutors are under more pressure to prosecute terrorist offenders and secure the toughest terms feasible. The ability of these new criminal laws to serve as deterrents for terrorist actions has been questioned, even though one of the main purposes of criminalizing terrorist-related activity has been to proactively prevent terrorist attacks. It is well known that the possibility of lengthy prison terms would not deter people from committing terrorist actions (Amirault et al., 2016). Infractions related to terrorism were introduced to the CCC in 2004 and 2013. In 2004, the Public Safety Act made it illegal to perpetrate a hoax that was connected to terrorist action. The Nuclear Terrorism Act and the Combating Terrorism Act were both put into effect in 2013. The Combating Terrorism Act made leaving Canada to engage in or carry out terrorist activities illegal, as well as hiding someone who has engaged in or is likely to engage in terrorist activity, in keeping with the ATA‟s objective of proactively preventing terrorist activity. Four nuclear terrorism-related felonies were established by the Nuclear Terrorism Act (Amirault et al., 2016). In order to keep the Canada-U.S. border “open for business, but closed to security threats,” the Smart Border Agreement was put into place in September 2002, underscoring the significance of the economy once more (Van Brunschot & Sherley, 2005). To add more Canada has always got pressurized by the bilateral US to impose the policies in response (Megret, 2012). Canada has put into practice four counter-radicalization strategies: outreach, arrests and incarceration, intervention with at-risk adolescents, and arrests and incarceration. The most prominent aspect of the program is intervention, whereas disruption/intervention refers to an 19 TERRORISM IN CANADA agency of security or law enforcement taking direct action to intervene with a person. An allencompassing national policy has not yet been put into practice, though (Bell, 2009). Justice for Victims Without a doubt, the pursuit of justice for victims is admirable. The international community should work towards preventing horrific abuses of human rights and ensuring victims receive justice. So, there is a compelling moral case for lifting immunity so that such claims may be brought against states in domestic courts in order to hold them liable for their wrongdoings. As a result, it is the responsibility of all states to support this removal of immunity. On September 4, 1997, three suicide bombers struck Jerusalem‟s Ben Yahuda Street pedestrian mall, leaving five people dead and almost 200 others hurt (Coombes, 2018). Sherri Wise, a Canadian, and Diana Campuzano, Avi Elishis, and Greg Salzman, three Americans, were among the injured. The assault took place on the final day of Dr. Wise‟s voluntary internship at a dental practice that provided care for impoverished children. The bombings were attributed to Hamas, which the United States and Canada have since designated as a terrorist group. The U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia awarded Campuzano, Elishis, and Salzman tens of millions of dollars in damages against Iran for its material support of Hamas on September 10, 2003, six years after the case was filed. The plaintiffs in Campuzano faced the possibility of not getting compensation while being victorious in their lawsuit against Iran because Iran lacked adequate assets in the United States against which the judgment could be executed (Coombes, 2018). In Tracy (Litigation Guardian of) v. Iranian Ministry of Information and Security, the Court of Appeal for Ontario unanimously upheld the Ontario Superior Court of Justice‟s determination that the U.S. Campuzano judgment plus nine others in favor of over 100 U.S. plaintiffs could be enforced against Iranian assets in Canada (Coombes, 2018). This decision came fourteen years 20 TERRORISM IN CANADA after the Campuzano plaintiffs “won” by obtaining a judgment against Iran. Because Tracy (Appeal) was the first case determined under Canada‟s Justice for Victims of Terrorism Act, it is important. With the JVTA, Canada joined the United States as the only nations in the world to have passed law allowing victims of terrorism overseas to file domestic civil claims against foreign nations that have been identified as terrorist sponsors (Coombes, 2018). Limitations The biggest limitation that the author has found is that there is the vast material available on this particular topic. It was hard to combine all the relevant data into the 5000 to 7000 words. The author was unable to include some relevant examples of the cases of the Terrorism in Canada that were found during the research. The other limitation is that the author did not get the opportunity to do the primary research as author has to do the secondary research only. To add more, the topic is quite intriguing but the author lacks the time. Finding publications specifically detailing the causes and effects of terrorism on Canada proved difficult because those articles often included descriptions of other countries. As a result, the author has provided a quick summary of how terrorism has affected Canada. Recommendations While focusing on the Pragmatic Worldview the author has searched for some recommendations (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The Air India bombing was the last significant terrorist incident to have a direct impact on Canada, which was over around 25 years ago. That could imply that the Canadians have been either very successful in their counterterrorism efforts or extraordinarily fortunate in the time afterwards. Alternatively, it‟s possible that potential 21 TERRORISM IN CANADA terrorists do not view Canada as a significant target. The purpose of this study does not extend to analyzing the existing threat (Charters, 2008). But from Canada‟s experience prior to 9/11, we may infer certain generalizations regarding the ramifications for public policy. The ongoing inquiry into the 1988 Air India bombing scarcely registered in the public awareness thirty years after the October Crisis, and neither the Canadian public nor lawmakers were preoccupied with terrorism at that time. It is accurate to state that the Canadian population did not perceive itself as being vulnerable (Charters, 2008). Some issues were more prominent and given higher importance. In the absence of widespread concern, there was no political constituency for counterterrorism that could advocate for increased funding and attention. It is a good idea to have a backup plan in case the backup plan fails. The historical episodic nature of Canada‟s exposure to terrorism diminished its impact and made it challenging to maintain a planned, proactive approach. The lessons learned from incidents like the Air India bombing should have highlighted this. To effectively combat terrorism, one must maintain constant vigilance, work diligently, and pay close attention to all of the task‟s components, including planning, personnel, training, intelligence, security, communication, and decision-making, as well as interagency and international cooperation and legal and human rights concerns (Charters, 2008). Even when the threat is sporadic, this still holds true. In reality, confronting this lengthy list of criteria is far better done in advance of a crisis or major threat, when decisions are often made in a hurry and under duress. No democratic nation has the resources to fully prepare for, foresee, and thwart all threats. Governments must practice risk management, allocating resources to the main counterterrorism weaknesses most pertinent to those risks and the most likely threats. In order to maintain capacity and manage risk, 22 TERRORISM IN CANADA it is imperative to be well informed, which unavoidably highlights the need of intelligence. The distinction between internal and exterior dangers was becoming hazier; domestic terrorism might obtain guidance, inspiration, and other resources from overseas (Charters, 2008). The ramifications for counterterrorism intelligence were enormous. The increasing risks implied that Canada‟s intelligence community would need to watch and possibly operate even farther abroad, even though security intelligence had never set a rigid geographical perimeter around its job. Politicians, security personnel, and the general public in Canada have had to reevaluate whether the time has come for Canada to strengthen its own overseas human intelligence operations in the light of 9/11 and the events that have followed it (Charters, 2008). Security is neither just a federal obligation nor just the purview of a small group of security and intelligence professionals. The 9/11 attacks provided further evidence that a “whole of government” approach is necessary to combat terrorism, in addition to what preceding incidents had suggested. It extends beyond and under layers of governmental entities and into the private sphere. In fact, it may be argued that it starts at the local level because local residents, police, and emergency services are typically the first to respond to any situation, whether it has domestic or international roots (Charters, 2008). After 9/11, it became obvious that these issues could not be allowed to persist. But addressing issues also necessitates cooperation amongst all stakeholders. Examples include defining roles and duties between various levels of government and the private sector, creating systems to communicate sensitive information, funding, and enhancing first-response capabilities. It requires effort and time. The process is tough, but not impossible, in Ottawa due to the city‟s continuously fluctuating political landscape, which is characterized by partisan politics and swiftly altering objectives (Charters, 2008). 23 TERRORISM IN CANADA Conclusion Terrorism is the phenomenon that could make people worried just by its name. There is a great controversy going on the definition of the terrorism. The author has chosen the definition given by the UK, US and Canada. The aforementioned evidence implies that there are numerous lessons to be drawn from Canada‟s prior experience with terrorism. The public policy challenges that occurred during that period did not disappear after 9/11 (Charters, 2008). The fundamental aspect of this situation is still the radicalization of people who commit or pursue acts of this kind of terrorism in Western nations. Different levels of radicalization or devotion to the global jihadist narrative may be related to how and why people choose their endgame, the result of their radicalization, and efforts to filter data via this lens may reveal some intriguing insights have yet to discover (Zekulin, 2016). About terrorism in Canada, this study provides insightful information. It provides some illumination into the causes economic deprivation, cultural clash and social deprivation. Apart from this, it explains the effects such as anxiety, depression, mental stress and post traumatic stress disorder. To add more, it suggests the possible solutions such always being prepared to face such emergency and providing valid training to the law enforcement officers that could help to mitigate this problem and initiatives of the Canadian government that are playing vital role in handling the situation. It is entirely focused on the study issue and provides an analysis of the major dangers such as the violent Sunni Islamist extremists, homegrown radicalized groups and other extremism groups that are playing a crucial role in extending the terrorism. It describes about the issues of justice for the victims that are regarded as the sources of terrorism in Canada. 24 TERRORISM IN CANADA There were some limitations to the study. It was hard to find the articles describing impacts of terrorism exactly on Canada as those articles include the description of the other countries as well. So, the author has given the brief description of the impacts of terrorism in Canada. The author‟s study on other broad themes will be able to build on the foundation provided by the capstone project that is being presented. The author will learn from this study effort how much knowledge one person can acquire by conducting their own independent research on a big subject like terrorism. 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