AUGMENTED REALITY TECHNOLOGY AND POLICE OFFICERS

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Increasing Public Safety Through Augmented Reality Technology Utilized by Police
Officers
Elaha Mojadidi
Bachelor of Law Enforcement Studies, Justice Institute of British Columbia

Author Note
Portions of these findings were presented as a poster at the 2024 Applied Research Day at
the Justice Institute of British Columbia, New Westminster, Canada
This paper was completed for LAWS 4003: Research Project, instructed by Melanie
Chernoff, and advised by Ciaran Feenan. Submitted April 5, 2024.
This paper is 7,369 words and is due April 5, 2024

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Abstract
Augmented reality (AR) technology presents a promising avenue for enhancing public
safety measures within law enforcement, yet its integration into police operations remains largely
unexplored. This study addresses the research question: How can police officers in Canada
utilize augmented reality technologies to increase public safety? Through an extensive review of
literature spanning over two decades, encompassing diverse fields such as security, military, and
emerging technologies, this research examines the feasibility and implications of AR adoption
within policing agencies. The findings reveal the potential benefits of AR technology in
enhancing various aspects of policing, including criminal investigation, training, and situational
awareness. Despite the promising prospects, significant challenges, and concerns, such as legal,
privacy, and funding constraints, hinder the widespread adoption of AR technology in law
enforcement. The discussion underscores the imperative for proactive policy development and
comprehensive research initiatives to address these challenges and unlock the transformative
potential of AR in revolutionizing policing practices. While the adoption process may be slow
and fraught with complexities, the study highlights the necessity for law enforcement agencies
and policymakers to embrace emerging technologies like AR to safeguard communities
effectively in the digital age.
Keywords: augmented reality, AR, technology, police agencies, law enforcement, public
safety, police officers, revolutionizing policing practices

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Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 2
Increasing Public Safety Through Augmented Reality Technology Utilized by Police Officers .... 5
Purpose or Aim of Study ............................................................................................................. 6
Research Question ....................................................................................................................... 7
Worldview ................................................................................................................................... 7
Scope of the Study....................................................................................................................... 7
Significance of Study .................................................................................................................. 7
Limitations of the Study .............................................................................................................. 8
Literature Review ............................................................................................................................ 8
The Benefits and Growth of AR Technology ............................................................................. 8
Lack of Funding ........................................................................................................................ 11
The need for testing and adoption of AR within Law Enforcement ......................................... 12
Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 13
Search Methodology ................................................................................................................. 13
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria ............................................................................................... 17
Abstract Review ........................................................................................................................ 18
Article Selection ........................................................................................................................ 18
Results ........................................................................................................................................... 19

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AR Viability within policing and the Need to Adopt Emerging Technology........................... 19
Funding Considerations............................................................................................................. 23
Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 25
A Virtual World ........................................................................................................................ 25
Lack of Adoption ...................................................................................................................... 26
Challenges and Concerns .......................................................................................................... 27
Revolutionizing Police Practices ............................................................................................... 27
Recommendations ......................................................................................................................... 29
Increasing Awareness and Understanding ................................................................................ 29
Addressing Funding Concerns .................................................................................................. 29
Addressing Privacy Concerns ................................................................................................... 30
Addressing Legal Issues ............................................................................................................ 30
Conducting Further Research .................................................................................................... 30
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 30

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Increasing Public Safety Through Augmented Reality Technology Utilized by Police
Officers
To maintain effective law enforcement in an ever-changing world, it is crucial to employ
creative thinking when implementing emerging technologies into society (Cowper, 2004). The
successful integration of such technologies can significantly impact the safety and well-being of
citizens, and it is vital to remain forward-thinking in this regard (Cowper, 2004). Adapting to
new technologies is especially important in law enforcement, where cutting-edge tools and
techniques can significantly enhance the ability to protect and serve communities. As such, it is
imperative for law enforcement professionals to stay abreast of emerging technologies and to be
able to think critically about their potential impact on society. (Cowper, 2004). Considering that
the technological advances of the 21st century are moving at an unprecedented rate (Korinek,
2021), police officers must be well-equipped in understanding and applying these transformative
technologies, not only to combat new threats due to technological advances but to enhance the
way they police.
Among these advancements is the creation of augmented reality (AR). According to 2023
statistics, augmented reality has a market value of USD 25.1 billion and is expected to grow to
USD 71.2 billion in 2028 (Augmented, 2023). It is essential also to note the advancements in
virtual reality (VR) training in law enforcement and its effectiveness. This is due to the
similarities between VR and AR technologies, such as incorporating virtual elements in a visual
display headset. The integration of VR has drastically improved the quality of training programs
and has led to numerous benefits for policing agencies (Kleygrewe et al., 2024).
Considering the success and viability of VR within law enforcement training, Augmented
Reality is an emerging technology that has implications for public safety and is a potential tool

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police officers can utilize. Unlike VR, where the user is completely immersed in a computergenerated world, AR blends the real environment and virtual objects in real time for the user,
essentially aligning both the real world and virtual objects. Not only can this technology be used
for police training purposes, but AR has the unique ability to be integrated into the fieldwork of
police officers.
Statement of Problem
The problem herein is the need for more initiative on behalf of policing agencies in
Canada to research, test and implement emerging AR technology. Law enforcement officers
must possess a high level of proficiency in using cutting-edge technology to stay ahead of the
evolving tactics of criminals. Officers must be well-versed in the latest technological
advancements to effectively combat crime in the digital age and be prepared to utilize them to
their fullest potential. Failure to do so could result in a significant disadvantage and endanger the
lives of both officers and the public (Cowper, 2004). As such, law enforcement agencies must
prioritize research on technological tools to increase public safety.
Purpose or Aim of Study
This research paper aims to provide a comprehensive introduction to AR and its potential
benefits to law enforcement agencies in Canada. It seeks to explore and discuss the implications
of AR on increasing public safety and produce potential applications for its future use as a law
enforcement tool. The purpose of this research is to explore and examine the fundamental
principles and components of this technology, along with research developments occurring today
that have the potential to enhance police performance. This paper will provide policing agencies
with insights into the possibilities of AR technology and enable them to make informed decisions
on its use.

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Research Question
The primary research question is, how can police officers in Canada utilize augmented
reality technologies to increase public safety?
Worldview
This research study adopts a pragmatic worldview, prioritizing the research problem and
question while utilizing all available approaches to understand it (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Instead of focusing solely on one method, pragmatism allows for various methodologies,
worldviews, assumptions, and data collection and analysis (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Moreover, a pragmatic perspective prioritizes the real-world implications and uses of research
(Creswell & Creswell, 2018). By adopting this approach, the study aims to explore practical
solutions to increase public safety through AR technology leveraged by police agencies in
Canada; therefore, a pragmatic worldview is suitable.
Scope of the Study
This study's scope will focus on increasing public safety in Canada through emerging
technology; specifically, Augmented Reality used by police officers, as well as the principles and
components of this technology and its implications for police agencies. This scope includes
examining and discussing current technological tools and devices used by police agencies as well
as augmented reality and virtual reality. This study’s scope will mainly include the discussion of
current VR technology utilized by policing agencies due to its similarities in design with AR to
illuminate the potential success of AR implementation and provide a comprehensive
understanding of how AR can be integrated into policing.
Significance of Study
The research on augmented technologies in policing is significant as it enriches the
scholarly literature in this area. This technology has yet to be implemented and thoroughly

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researched, so the discussion and examination of how this emerging technology can be used will
set the wheels in motion for further discussion and exposure to this realm of technology that can
transform the way traditional policing is done.
To create a prototype and test it within Canadian police agencies, it is crucial to have a
comprehensive understanding of the benefits, challenges, and implications of integrating AR into
law enforcement practices. Researching and utilizing this technology can increase public safety
and improve policing practices. However, it is essential to note that integrating AR will bring
about issues of legality, funding, privacy laws, and police accountability that will significantly
affect the public and police. This will have implications for government policy and decisionmaking in the near future.
Limitations of the Study
Considering the novelty of this area of research, there may be limitations in research
specifically conducted in Canada, in addition to a limited number of studies testing the viability
of AR within policing organizations. It may be likely that there will be a lack of qualitative data
results due to the insufficiency of this technology's utilization by policing agencies; this will
result in a limited examination of the perceptions and attitudes of the public, police, and
policymakers on the use of AR within policing.
Literature Review
The Benefits and Growth of AR Technology
A prominent theme is AR technology's potential benefits and growth. In the report titled
Spanning the Virtual Frontier: Canada's Immersive Technology Ecosystem (2020) by the
Information and Communications Technology Council (ICTC), the ICTC commented on the
growing field of immersive technology and the significant benefits seen today. According to the
ICTC (2020), the growth of immersive technology in Canada has been remarkable, with over

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100 new companies specializing in immersive technology products and services established
between 2014 and 2017 alone. In retail, AR enhances shopping experience, in healthcare, it
trains medical professionals and guides during surgeries, in education, it creates interactive
learning materials, and in architecture and construction, it improves project efficiency
Information and Communications Technology Council, 2020).
The AR market has been experiencing significant growth globally and is projected to
contribute up to USD 1.5 trillion to the global economy by 2030 (ICTC, 2020). A significant
portion of Canada's immersive technology companies, approximately 81%, are engaged in
sectors vital to national interests and economic development (ICTC, 2020). These sectors include
national defense and emergency response (ICTC, 2020). This is concurred by the Department of
National Defense and Canadian Armed Forces (DND & CAF) (2019) as they state that recent
technological advancements have revolutionized the public safety sector. Although they add
there is still much work to be done to fully utilize the value of newer technologies and the highquality data required for making real-time operational decisions, efforts are already underway to
explore the potential of data-driven technologies, such as augmented reality, to enhance the
efficiency and effectiveness of Defence programs (National Defense and Canadian Armed
Forces, [DND & CAF], 2019).
This is significant in connecting to literature by Bach (2021); Cowper (2004); DND &
CAF (2019); RCMP (2021); and Schwab (2019), as they all speak to the viability, growth, and
benefits of AR technology. Cowper (2004), Liu (2018), and Schwab (2019) share similarities in
relaying the specific functions of AR, such as facial recognition, voice recognition, and spatial
mapping in benefiting security and military fields. Interestingly, Cowper (2004) predicted

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success and practicality over 20 years ago; such findings are corroborated today by studies
conducted by the ICTC (2020), Liu (2018), and Bach (2021).
Legal and Privacy Concerns
Schwab (2019) explores the potential of augmented reality technology in security.
However, the author highlights significant limitations that may hinder or delay the adoption of
such technology in the fields of security and public safety, notably privacy and legality issues.
According to the ICTC (2020), integrating and adopting AR technology into Canadian society
raises concerns about privacy and legal compliance. Schwab (2019) expresses that no clear
framework exists for integrating AR into security or public safety fields. AR devices can collect
sensitive personal data and process biometric data without people's consent, leading to
unwarranted surveillance and reduced privacy rights (ICTC, 2020). Schwab (2019) further
explains that using AR technology may result in legal data retention, sharing, and access issues.
Proper safeguards must be implemented to prevent unauthorized access or misuse of collected
data (Schwab, 2019). As per Schwab's (2019) explanation, with the increasing usage of AR in
security, it is highly probable that legal concerns will also expand. This may involve
governments at every level regulating the AR data's content, usage, and distribution, along with
safeguarding and storing it (Schwab, 2019).
Moreover, a significant gap in the literature regarding the use of AR in Canada and the
U.S. is the lack of knowledge of legal frameworks governing the use of AR technology by police
forces. This can include the admissibility of AR-generated evidence in court proceedings and
clear guidelines for legally deploying AR-enhanced surveillance tools (Schwab, 2019).
Considering the adoption of somewhat new technology, such as body worn cameras in Canadian

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police departments, has had a slow adoption it can be assumed several factors hinder the
acceptance of newer technology such as AR.
Implementing new technologies, such as body-worn cameras in Canadian police
departments, has been slow due to various factors (Erick, 2019). These include concerns
regarding privacy and legality (Erick, 2019), lack of funding, and the reluctance of officers and
unions to adopt them (Better Canada Institute, 2021; Smoot, n.d.). It can be assumed that the
acceptance of newer technologies like AR is also hindered by similar factors, including the
public's privacy concerns and delays in adopting laws.
Additionally, there may be pushback from officers and their unions, who argue that
advanced technologies like AR and body-worn cameras violate their privacy rights and increase
their stress due to constant surveillance (Better Canada Institute, 2021; Smoot, n.d.). They also
worry that such technologies could be used to target them in disciplinary proceedings (Better
Canada Institute, 2021; Smoot, n.d.). This is significant to understanding the resistance that
augmented reality may face. It also highlights a broader issue of a lack of legal and privacy
knowledge when it comes to adopting new technology, as well as a resistant police subculture
that Canadian law enforcement agencies and the government must address.
Lack of Funding
According to the ICTC (2020), Canadian investors have yet to provide substantial
funding for AR technology due to various factors, including challenges within the AR industry
and broader investment trends. One of the reasons for this is that AR technology is considered a
high-risk investment, as there is uncertainty surrounding its market viability and potential returns
(ICTC, 2020). Although AR holds promise for various sectors like gaming, education,
healthcare, and manufacturing, its widespread adoption and revenue-generating potential still

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need to be proven (ICTC, 2020). This uncertainty discourages investors from investing in AR
start-ups without evidence of market demand and sustainable business models (ICTC, 2020).
Schwab (2019) agrees with this discovery and warns that the lack of a clear vision for
integrating augmented reality into security programs and public safety fields could result in their
rejection. AR is already widely used for gaming and shopping, but without a clear vision,
security programs may not receive necessary funding approval from key decision-makers due to
budget constraints (Schwab 2019). Additionally, Schwab (2019) adds that problems like privacy
and legal concerns will need to be addressed and will come at a high cost. This theme provides a
significant outlook on one of the many factors as to why AR has yet to be utilized by police
agencies.
The need for testing and adoption of AR within Law Enforcement
A recurring theme within all the literature expresses the urgency to grab a hold of this
emerging technology and utilize it for the overall betterment of society. This major theme
additionally serves as a significant gap in the literature due to the novelty of this area of research
and the lack of available information in addressing the research question. This is only further
illuminated by Cowper (2004), Bach (2021), Schwab (2019), LeBeuf (2000), and the National
Defense and Canadian Armed Forces (2019), as these authors implore the need to stay abreast of
emerging technologies to stay relevant and ahead of evolving criminal tactics and threats.
Moreover, these authors all similarly provide insights into how the police, military and
security can use AR technology to revolutionize these industries. The insights provided by
Cowper (2004), Bach (2021), and Schwab (2019) are crucial instructions to municipal and
federal police departments on how to test and develop AR technology. According to the RCMP’s
Specialized Policing Services (2021), this technology is under the radar of the government, and
there is a discussion on its potential use as a law enforcement tool; however, this discussion

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within the RCMP is in its infancy and may take several years to develop. As a testament to the
inability for police departments to adapt side by side with emerging technology is the findings
provided by LeBeuf in 2000. LeBeuf (2000) reveals that Law enforcement decision makers have
long understood the usefulness of technology in their work ranging from earlier technological
advancements within policing such as AFIS—Automated Fingerprint Identification System or
crime mapping systems. However, the technology sector has rapidly outpaced the decisionmaking processes of public police departments (LeBeuf, 2000). As a result, police are left
vulnerable in an age of technology-based criminal activity (Cowper, 2004; LeBeuf, 2000).
Methodology

Search Methodology

The search methodology for this study focused on searching for secondary data due to
time constraints and the lack of resources to collect primary data. A comprehensive search was
conducted using strategies such as keywords (See Table 1), and inclusion and exclusion criteria
to optimize relevant resources. The following databases were utilized for the search; Criminal
Justice Abstracts with Full Text (CJA), Canadian Commons, and Google Scholar. The initial and
revised searches yielded various sources of credible literature and a number of search results
(See Tables 2,3,4,5 and 6).
Table 1
Key Search Terms
“Law Enforcement”
“Police”
“Policing”
“Police Officer”
“Public Safety”

AND

“Augmented Reality”
“Virtual Reality”
“AR”
“VR”
“Technology”
“Mixed Reality”
“MR”
“XR”
“Extended Reality”

AND

“Canada”
“North America”
“United States”
“America”
“U.S.”

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Note. This Table illustrates the key terms used to identify relevant literature for the article
selection.
Table 2
Results from the initial search.
Database 1

Search Term(s)

Criminal Justice Abstracts with Full
Text (CJA)

augmented reality AND
policing

Search Results
58

Note. This Table illustrates the search database used, search terms, and number of hits returned
from the initial search.
Table 3
Results from the revised search.
Database 1

Search Terms(s)

Search Results

Reason for Revision

Criminal Justice
Abstracts with Full
Text (CJA)

augmented reality
AND (policing OR
police officers)

1

Added synonym for
policing

Criminal Justice
Abstracts with Full
Text (CJA)

augmented reality
AND (police OR law
enforcement)

11

Removed ‘policing’
Replaced with
‘police’ and added a
synonym for police

Criminal Justice
Abstracts with Full
Text (CJA)

augmented reality
AND (police OR law
enforcement) AND
public safety

181

Added keyword
‘public safety’

Criminal Justice
Abstracts with Full
Text (CJA)

augmented reality
AND (police OR law
enforcement) AND
public safety AND
use

2

Added keyword ‘use’

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Note. This Table illustrates the search database used, search terms, and number of hits returned
with revisions applied to the search
Table 4
Results from the initial search.
Database 2

Search Terms(s)

Search Results

Canada Commons

augmented reality AND
policing

3,647

Note. This Table illustrates the search database used, search terms, and number of hits returned
from the initial search.
Table 5
Results from the revised search.
Database 2

Search Term(s)

Search Results

Reason for Revision

Canada Commons

augmented reality
AND (policing OR
police officers)

3,647

Added synonym for
policing

Canada Commons

augmented reality
AND (police OR law
enforcement)

5,052

Removed ‘policing’
Replaced with
‘police’ and added a
synonym for police

Canada Commons

augmented reality
AND (police OR law
enforcement) AND
public safety

3,475

Added keyword
‘public safety’

Canada Commons

augmented reality
AND (police OR law
enforcement) AND
public safety AND
use

3,449

Added keyword ‘use’

Canada Commons

Augmented reality

10,000

Removed ‘AND
(police OR law

AUGMENTED REALITY TECHNOLOGY AND POLICE OFFICERS

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enforcement) AND
public safety AND
use’

Note. This Table illustrates the search database used, search terms, and number of hits returned
with revisions applied to the search
Table 6
Results from the initial search.
Database 3

Search Term(s)

Search Results

Google Scholar

augmented AND policing

61,300

Note. This Table illustrates the search database used, search terms, and number of hits returned
from the initial search.
Results from the revised search.
Database 3

Search Term(s)

Search Results

Reason for Revision

Google Scholar

augmented reality
AND (policing OR
police officers)

87,200

Added synonym for
policing

augmented reality
AND (police OR law
enforcement)

135,000

Removed ‘policing’
Replaced with
‘police’ and added a
synonym for police

augmented reality
AND (police OR law
enforcement) AND
public safety

89,000

Added keyword
‘public safety’

augmented reality
AND (police OR law
enforcement) AND
public safety AND
use

89,700

Added keyword ‘use’

Note. This Table illustrates the search database used, search terms, and number of hits returned
with revisions applied to the search.

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Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
In order to focus on relevant information for this capstone paper, specific criteria have
been established for the inclusion and exclusion of sources. To be included, sources must be
scholarly, written in English, full-text, and peer-reviewed. Reports, books, and viewpoint papers
published in accredited journals and by credible authors, and institutions from 2000 to 2024 are
acceptable. This ensures that the research meets high academic standards. The sources studied
are not limited to discussions taken through a policing lens. Literature that speaks to the use of
AR in any related field, such as security and military will be included. Studies conducted in
military and security fields are also considered relevant given the shared similarities between
these fields and law enforcement. This allows us to visualize the potential for AR within a police
setting.
Although this broad timeline resulted in many search hits, it was necessary to ensure that
we covered all relevant information since AR technology has been discussed for over 20 years.
By examining past findings and emerging data, we can establish meaningful connections and
develop a comprehensive understanding of the topic. In the purpose to better understand the
emergence of new technology within law enforcement, literature that discusses other emerging
technologies other than augmented and virtual reality will be accepted.
Initially, the inclusion criteria were limited to Canadian literature. However, due to the
limited number of Canadian sources available, literature from outside the United States was
included in this study. Canada and the United States share many similarities in culture,
socioeconomic conditions, and legal systems. Therefore, research findings in the U.S. may be
applicable and transferable to this study. The study's focus group includes law enforcement
agencies and police officers, which are relevant to maintaining public safety. Exclusion criteria

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include sources that are news articles, blogs, and sources not in English. Studies conducted
before 2000 are excluded to ensure relevant and viable studies will be reviewed. Additionally,
studies conducted outside of Canada and the U.S. are excluded to ensure that the findings and
discussions regarding AR technology are applicable in a Canadian setting.
Abstract Review
The initial and revised searches yielded many sources related to the keywords and
inclusion and exclusion criteria. The sources were inspected first based on each title, examining
their relevance to the research question and whether the identified keywords (refer to Table 1)
were used. If an article and its respective title seemed feasible at first glance, it was further
inspected, and the abstract was reviewed. In reviewing each abstract, the inclusion and exclusion
criteria were at the forefront in determining if the study would be selected. Ultimately, 29 article
abstracts were examined. Each source identified two or more key terms, such as "augmented
reality," "police," "policing," and "Canada." U.S.," "AR," and "VR." The articles were selected
based on three main criteria: they were either conducted in Canada or the U.S., the literature was
scholarly or peer-reviewed, and the article mentioned AR in the field of law enforcement,
security, or military.
Article Selection
The articles selected for this capstone paper were chosen from the initial 29. These
articles were selected based on their potential to address the research question, relevance to the
capstone's scope, and ability to contribute meaningfully to the discussion. The chosen articles
were impactful in providing a comprehensive understanding of AR and its potential utilization
by police, including its technical functionalities and limitations. Canadian sources were
prioritized over U.S. literature to narrow down the article selection. All six articles underwent a
critical analysis to determine their suitability in answering the research question. The final

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review process involved a meticulous evaluation of the articles' introduction, methodology,
results, recommendations, and conclusions, following the guidelines of Creswell and Creswell
(2018).
Results
AR Viability Within Policing and the Need to Adopt Emerging Technology
According to the literature discussed by Cowper (2004), Liu et al. (2018), Schwab
(2019), and Bach (2021) the benefits of using AR in the public safety sector are numerous. AR
tools can be used in various aspects of policing, including criminal investigation, training, and
patrol (Cowper, 2004), as well as related fields in military and security (Bach, 2021; Schwab,
2019). Although the findings by Schwab (2019) and Bach (2021) provide similar insights into
the applications and use of AR they only speak to its components in a military and security field.
However, Cowper uniquely has discussed this, specifically as a tool to benefit police officers.
According to Cowper (2004) AR can provide real-time data on crime scenes, suspects,
and other critical information, enabling officers to make better-informed decisions and act more
quickly. AR tools can also be used to identify and track individuals based on their voice patterns
and enhance an officer's ability to read lips, especially in noisy or crowded environments
(Cowper, 2004). Moreover, AR technology can be used to create 3D visualizations of crime
scenes and other forensic data, allowing officers to better understand the scene and identify
potential evidence (Cowper, 2004). The technology can also translate languages in real-time,
identify individuals based on biometric data, and integrate sensors that detect chemical,
biological, and explosive threats, providing officers with immediate notification of any
contamination (Cowper, 2004).
Additionally, AR technology can provide officers with maps, heads-up displays, and
other data that can improve situational awareness and help officers make better decisions,

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ultimately leading to enhanced public safety (Cowper, 2004). This study adds immense strength
in answering the research question, since it focuses solely on AR’s applications in a policing
realm. At its strength base, the authors of this paper gathered information from many different
engineering and government resources, scientific and academic research papers, and projects, as
well as examining the field research conducted on the Battlefield Augmented Reality System
(BARS) that was developed at the Naval Research Lab in Washington, D.C.
The results provided by Cowper (2004) suggest the feasibility and positive application of
AR to enhance public safety. They also provide insights into a comprehensive picture of AR
technology, various AR initiatives, and how they might impact the law enforcement profession
over the coming years. This is only a handful of the potential applications of AR, which has been
predicted in literature by Cowper (2004) and similarly by Schwab (2019). The technology's
feasibility is evident in the implementations and testing carried out by researchers like Bach
(2021), Cowper (2004), and Liu et al. (2018). Their main findings help in answering the research
questions as well as serving as a source document for police officers and agencies, providing a
starting point for developing practical and beneficial policing applications.
Notably, the U.S military proposals to increase situational awareness and the
enhancement of soldiers’ capabilities through the use of AR underscores the potential success of
this technology in enhancing public safety. To successfully achieve their objectives and address
this problem the U.S. military invited Microsoft engineers to carry out their vision (Bach, 2021).
The literature concluded that Microsoft's HoloLens technology has significance in increasing a
soldier's personal safety, and situational awareness through providing features such as thermal
imaging, holographic imagery, and 3D terrain maps projected onto their field of vision (Bach,
2021). It is significant to mention the success of the porotypes has been significant in the U.S.

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military’s decision to form a new contract with Microsoft which is an estimated $21.88 billion
dollars (Bach, 2021). This information is crucial and adds strength to the evidence as it uncovers
that Microsoft's HoloLens technology is dependable and highlights the promising prospects of
AR technology in the military sector. This, in turn, suggests that there is potential for its adoption
within the law enforcement agencies in Canada.
To further solidify the ambiguity of whether this technology works Liu et al. (2018)
conducted a research project to evaluate Microsoft HoloLens’ AR technology. They wanted to
explore its capabilities and limitations in "head localization, real environment reconstruction,
spatial mapping, hologram visualization, and speech recognition" (Liu et al., 2018, p.2). The
study's findings revealed high accuracy regarding the functionalities and components of
Microsoft’s HoloLens technology (Liu et al., 2018). This is mentionable since the findings reveal
the tangible success of AR as well these evaluative findings can be useful references for future
studies and other companies looking to develop HoloLens software to utilize AR in their
respective fields of work (Liu et al., 2018).
The study conducted by Liu et al. (2018) has great value for law enforcement agencies
looking towards the first steps in developing a prototype. The findings reveal the major
functionalities of HoloLens to be accurate (Liu et al., 2018). Considering the U.S military have
already began testing, this displays the potential for AR to enhance public safety and be
implemented and adopted by policing agencies. The strengths of evidence provided by Liu et al.,
(2018) can be corroborated by the U.S military’s decision to utilize Microsoft's HoloLens
technology to carry out their objectives. However, the study has a weakness and limitations. The
experiments only focus on one or two specific technical aspects of a given functional component
of the HoloLens system (Liu et al., 2018). This study neglects to evaluate every single technical

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design and use of this technology, which calls for further testing and research on the viability of
AR technology such as the HoloLens.
Furthermore, the RCMP is leading the discussion on how policing in Canada can adapt to
emerging technology. Investigation into literature to understand where policing in Canada falls
in their attentiveness to new technology reveals that the RCMP is at the forefront of this
discussion. In the 2021 report published by the government of Canada, titled, “2021-26 strategic
plan: RCMP Specialized Policing Services” The RCMP Specialized Policing Services developed
a departmental plan for the 2021-26 fiscal year to modernize the RCMP. The RCMP's
Specialized Policing Services (SPS) has identified the need for federal policing to keep pace with
the rapidly evolving technological world, especially since contemporary criminal activity is
underpinned by technology (RCMP, 2021). In this strategic plan, the SPS mainly speaks to
supporting the evolution of the RCMP with efforts focused on implementing cutting-edge
science and technology, delivering modern training, and innovative tools (RCMP, 2021).
According to the report's main findings, there are six major trends that the organization
need to consider while developing its strategies and plans. The report highlights "The 4th
Industrial Revolution" (RCMP, 2021, p. 3) as the top trend, which includes the importance of
augmented reality applications. The report examines the implications of the use of such AR
technology in training or during real-time crisis resolution (RCMP, 2021). This report has
immense significance and adds strength to the answering the research question since it is
published by a reliable source, it has roots in Canada and points towards the potential future and
success of AR adoption within the RCMP.
Legal and Privacy Considerations

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The implementation of AR technology in police work raises privacy and legal issues that
need to be addressed (ICTC, 2020; Schwab, 2019). With AR devices, sensitive personal data can
be collected, and biometric data can be processed without people's consent, leading to
unwarranted surveillance and reduced privacy rights (Schwab, 2019). There is no clear
framework for integrating AR into security or public safety fields, and concerns have been raised
about the lack of guidelines for legally deploying AR-enhanced surveillance tools (Schwab,
2019; ICTC, 2020).
Moreover, the admissibility of AR-generated evidence in court proceedings is not well
understood, and legal data retention, sharing, and access issues may arise with the use of AR
technology (Schwab, 2019; ICTC, 2020). The government may need to regulate the content,
usage, and distribution of AR data, and proper safeguards must be implemented to prevent
unauthorized access or misuse of collected data (Schwab, 2019; ICTC, 2020). The theme of
privacy and legal concerns is crucial in addressing the research question related to the
implementation of AR technology in police work and highlights the limitations and gaps that are
in place such as legal and privacy concerns. These concerns have a significant impact on the
reluctance to adopt such technology. Therefore, it is necessary to establish proper safeguards and
regulations that can address these issues and protect the privacy rights of citizens.
Funding Considerations
The increasing costs of policing have become a major issue in Canada, affecting all levels
of government (CCA, 2014). According to the Federation of Canadian Municipalities, nearly
20% of municipal operating budgets are currently allocated towards security, with police service
expenditures identified as among the most rapidly growing expenses for municipalities.
Although modern technology and resources can be useful in preventing and solving crimes, it
remains uncertain whether the handling of this data adds and unforeseen costs cause extra

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demands or undue burdens on departmental resources and time (Deloitte, 2008, as cited in CCA,
2014).
There are various factors that impact the overall cost of implementing technology for law
enforcement agencies. The cost is not limited to the price paid to the vendor (National Public
Safety Partnership, n.d). It includes the initial expenses for acquisition, such as labor, hardware,
warranties, software, and licenses (National Public Safety Partnership, n.d). After that, the
departments must compute the deployment costs, operating costs for regular use, maintenance
costs for repairs or upgrades, and disposal costs for removal or end of ownership (National
Public Safety Partnership, n.d). Additionally, Schwab (2019) suggests that the absence of a
distinct plan for integrating augmented reality into public safety and security programs could
lead to their rejection, and the lack of a clear plan may result in budget constraints that prevent
key decision-makers from approving necessary funding for security programs. Although Schwab
(2019) speaks to its use in a security field, his findings are still applicable in the policing world.
Since there is a lack of data and literature available on the definitive successes of AR technology
within law enforcement, it is highly probable that the potential risk of investing will discourage
police and government decision-makers from initiating any prototypes and testing. Additionally,
Schwab (2019) notes that addressing concerns related to privacy and legal matters will be
expensive.
Furthermore, the Information and Communications Technology Council (ICTC) states
that Canadian companies are facing challenges in securing funding from investors, which is
hindering the adoption of AR technology by Canadian companies (ICTC, 2020). The reluctance
among investors to invest in emerging tech like AR is also contributing to the lack of financing

AUGMENTED REALITY TECHNOLOGY AND POLICE OFFICERS

25

available for Canadian companies (ICTC, 2020). In addition, reduced spending by clients may
negatively impact the demand for immersive tech products and services (ICTC, 2020).
This raises questions about whether the general lack of funding from Canadian investors
is causing the government and policing authorities to hesitate in adopting AR technology in
policing. Overall, this theme was significant and shows depth in answering the research question
since it displays the obstacle of funding and costs which curtail the utilization of AR by police
officers. However, this theme reveals the limitations that exist due to the minimal and incomplete
data available for Canada's immersive technology industry. The existing data in Canada is vague
due to the novelty of this area of research and due to this, much of the data regarding AR
technology is in aggregation with data from the U.S. (ICTC, 2020).
A Virtual World

Discussion

It has been thoroughly established in the literature that there is a new virtual world where
criminal tactics have evolved, and as such police represent an important market for technology
companies that needs to be developed quickly. To keep up with the changing world police
organizations need to utilize the technological tools that are available to them. The key is not for
police agencies only to adopt new technology but also to adapt with it. This will ultimately
ensure that law enforcement agencies do not fall short in leveraging tools that will significantly
enhance the way they police and contribute to public safety.
Moreover, it has become starkly apparent through reviewing the available literature that
almost every progressive field of work and industry has already taken advantage of AR
technology in some capacity and have transformed their traditional practices. The ICTC (2020)
explains that AR is revolutionizing various industries, as it is increasingly used in retail for
virtual try-ons, in healthcare for surgical planning and training, in education for interactive

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26

learning experiences, in architecture for visualizing designs, and many more. However, as AR is
being utilized by many fields and industries in Canada, it has not yet been leveraged by police
agencies, which acts to its detriment.
Lack of Adoption
When it comes to public safety fields, there seems to be a lack of initiative in testing and
implementing AR prototypes. Despite numerous discussions on the benefits and implications of
AR technology in fields such as the military and security, there are no concrete examples of
development or implementation within any police agency in Canada. As an outlier, the RCMP
has briefly discussed AR technology’s promise however, there is yet to be a plan in place to test
and develop. This can be seen in the lack of available literature, which suggests that police
organizations have yet to take a proactive approach towards exploring the potential of AR
technology.
The U.S. military alone has shown potential in being one of the first in North America to
utilize AR technology to develop software and a headset tailored to meet their objectives of
increasing situational awareness and soldier. However, it is still in progress, and no definitive
data is available on its findings and feasibility. The military and police have similar objectives as
both are primarily responsible for ensuring public safety. According to Bach's (2021) research,
AR technology so far has proved to be beneficial for the military, and it is likely that law
enforcement agencies can also leverage this technology in a positive way. While most industries
have successfully adapted to emerging technologies, police agencies are lagging. It is evident
that they are still struggling with the challenges that come with much simpler technologies, such
as body-worn cameras. The discussion surrounding AR impact on policing practices has been
wildly positive, which raises the question of why law enforcement agencies fall staggeringly
behind.

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Challenges and Concerns
The novelty of AR technology poses as a significant drawback in its adoption on behalf
of government and policing agencies. Although there are numerous benefits as outlined by Bach
(2021), Cowper (2004), Liu et.al (2018), RCMP (2021), Schwab (2019), and the National
Defense and Canadian Armed Forces (2019), there are barriers which inhibit police officers from
utilizing this technology. Firstly, there is a general lack of research and literature in this
technology being leveraged by policing agencies. This ultimately means that there is an
unknowingness in how to approach and implement AR. Police and government policy makers
will need to consider the costs of AR, the legal implications and most importantly the privacy
concerns that will come with such invasive yet beneficial technology.
There are risks that will inevitably come with the implementation of AR, such as there
are with any new technology, however it should not be the cause of its hindrance. Policing
organizations need to realize the importance of staying ahead of emerging technology, not only
to combat evolving criminal tactics, but to alleviate and revolutionize their policing practices. In
comparison if we look to the debate surrounding body-worn cameras we can see similar
considerations in its adoption such as funding, legal and privacy concerns, however, at its
forefront body-worn cameras provide added layers of protection and accountability for officers
(Better Canada Institute, 2021). They protect officers from false claims when the alleged
behavior is captured avoiding millions of dollars in lawsuits (Better Canada Institute, 2021).
There seems to be a trade-off between the benefits new technology can provide and the risks
associated with it. As the Council of Canadian Academies (2014) mentions, technology offers
potential cost savings but creates new resource demands.
Revolutionizing Police Practices

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28

The use of technology has transformed the traditional methods of policing. The adoption
of computers, fingerprinting, crime mapping systems, body-worn cameras, and predictive
policing has revolutionized day-to-day policing (Government of Canada, 2023; LeBeuf, 2000)
These technologies utilize algorithms, data analysis, and emerging software technology to the
benefit of law enforcement agencies. However, the slow adoption of emerging technology can be
attributed to legal, funding, and privacy implications, which need to be discussed and researched
widely before they can be utilized.
In Canada, there is a significant gap in understanding the role that AR technology plays
in the policing realm. Due to this lack of understanding, law enforcement agencies are
significantly delaying in reaping the benefits that come with such technology. Policymakers need
to take the initiative to visualize the potential of AR technology and begin creating and testing a
prototype. However, this is only possible if government and police policy makers can understand
the immense potential despite its challenges. From the research and insights conducted for this
paper, it is suggested that AR technology will likely be adopted by policing agencies and
enhance public safety, altering the way police will look and work. However, this will be a very
slow adoption process, as it may take several years before policing policy makers will be able to
realize the full potential of AR technology.
The full realization of AR's potential in law enforcement requires significant research to
ultimately configure and work around the challenges presented. Police agencies must proactively
engage in research and testing to harness the transformative capabilities of AR. The literature
analyzed in this paper underscores the widespread adoption of AR across diverse industries,
signaling its capacity to modernize and enhance traditional methods of work. Moreover,
discussions regarding the applicability of AR in policing have permeated scholarly discourse for

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29

over two decades, with tangible precedents established by the U.S. military's utilization of AR to
equip soldiers. These findings should serve as compelling evidence for law enforcement officials
to recognize the inherent value of AR in increasing public safety initiatives, despite the
associated obstacles, and to take decisive action in this regard.
Failure to expedite research and testing, and to address the challenges associated with
AR, results in a significant missed opportunity for police departments to capitalize on its
potential benefits. By embracing AR technology, law enforcement agencies stand to accelerate
substantial advancements in enhancing public safety measures. The insights produced from this
paper not only lays groundwork for subsequent research initiatives but also reveals the potential
AR has in optimizing public safety through its many operational abilities. AR technology not
only can increase efficiency within policing, but it can do so effectively.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of the research conducted on AR technology and its potential use
by policing agencies in Canada, several gaps and future research areas have been identified.
Policymakers and law enforcement leaders need to take the following actions to bridge these
gaps and fully realize the potential of AR technology in policing.
Increasing Awareness and Understanding
Policymakers need to take the initiative to increase awareness and understanding of AR
technology in policing. This can be achieved through training programs, workshops, and
seminars for law enforcement personnel, policymakers, and the public.
Addressing Funding Concerns
Funding is a significant issue in the adoption of emerging technologies, including AR.
Policymakers need to identify and allocate sufficient funds to research, develop, test, and
implement AR technology in policing.

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30

Addressing Privacy Concerns
Policymakers need to carefully consider the privacy implications of using AR technology
and develop policies and guidelines that ensure the protection of citizens' rights.
Addressing Legal Issues
Policymakers need to review the existing laws and regulations to ensure that they are
compatible with the use of AR technology in policing. Policymakers also need to develop new
laws and regulations that address the unique aspects of AR technology in policing.
Conducting Further Research
There is a significant gap in available literature on AR technology and its potential use by
policing agencies in Canada. Policymakers need to invest in further research to gain a deeper
understanding of the potential benefits and challenges of using AR technology in policing.
In conclusion, the adoption of AR technology by policing agencies in Canada has the potential to
revolutionize the way law enforcement is conducted. Policymakers need to take the necessary
actions to address the gaps and challenges identified in this research and work toward a future
where AR technology is fully utilized in policing.
Conclusion
Augmented reality technology has significant potential benefits for various sectors,
including national defence, emergency response military, security, and police to enhance public
safety (Bach, 2021; Cowper, 2004; ICTC, 2020; DND & CAF, 2019; Schwab, 2019). However,
integrating AR into society raises concerns about funding, privacy, and legal compliance (ICTC,
2020; Schwab, 2019). The lack of established guidelines for deploying AR-enhanced
surveillance tools poses challenges for law enforcement agencies (Schwab, 2019). Researchers
and scholars emphasize the need for clear frameworks to address data privacy, legal issues, and

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regulatory oversight (Schwab, 2019). Without a clear vision for integrating AR into industries
such as law enforcement budget constraints may hinder its testing and adoption (Schwab, 2019).
Moreover, researchers have a consensus regarding the urgent need to explore and adopt
AR technology within public safety fields (Cowper, 2004; Bach, 2021; DND & CAF,
2019; Schwab, 2019). AR has the potential to revolutionize policing practices and help stay
ahead of evolving threats and criminal tactics (Cowper, 2004). Ultimately, addressing privacy
and legal concerns, securing funding, and promoting testing and adoption within law
enforcement are crucial steps toward realizing the full potential of AR technology for enhancing
public safety and security. In this paper the necessity to utilize new technology has been
profusely discussed, and it serves as crucial instruction to police departments and government
officials in Canada to initiate research and testing. Inevitability, risks are expected with the
adoption of advanced technology where little information exists on the laws the govern it. The
unknown territory that comes with adopting AR is enough to sway police officials from
meaningfully discussing the positive benefits of its implementation, however it should not
warrant the lack of its adoption. In embracing augmented reality technology, policing agencies in
Canada not only pioneer the advancement of public safety measures but also contribute to
proactive adaptation to emerging technology thus affirming their commitment to safeguarding
communities in the digital age and beyond (RCMP, 2021).

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