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The Role of Law Enforcement in the Implementation of Legislations Related to Intimate

Partner Violence in Canada

Cheenu Sharma (Cohort #10)
J0478510
School of Criminal Justice & Security, Justice Institute of British Columbia

Author Note
This paper was completed for LAWS 4003: Capstone Research Project, taught and
graded by Professor John A. Winterdyk. The paper is 7,873 words and is due on
November 14, 2024.

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Abstract
This research paper examines the role of law enforcement in the implementation of
legislations related to Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) in Canada, assessing the effectiveness
of these policies within real-world enforcement practices. Through a comprehensive literature
review, the study underscores the high prevalence of IPV, particularly among young women
and marginalized communities, alongside the limitations in data collection that contribute to
widespread underreporting. It further identifies systemic challenges within law enforcement,
including implicit bias and inadequate cultural competency, which hinder effective responses
to IPV. The research highlights the importance of intersectionality in understanding varied
victim experiences and critiques existing policies for not adequately empowering all affected
individuals. Key recommendations include broadening data collection approaches, enhancing
law enforcement training, and integrating health and social services into IPV interventions.
This study aims to contribute to more equitable, informed, and effective law enforcement
responses to IPV, ultimately supporting the safety and well-being of all victims in Canada.
Keywords: Intimate Partner Violence, Canada, Law Enforcement,
Legislation, Intersectionality, Data Collection, Victim Support, Systemic Barriers

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Table of Contents
The Role of Law Enforcement in the Implementation of Legislations Related to Intimate
Partner Violence in Canada…………………………………………………..…..…………5

Background………………...…………………………………………..…………….. 5
Statement of Problem and Purpose of Study …………………………………………6
Research Question………………………………………………………….………….7
Philosophical Worldview…………………………………………………….………...7
Scope of the Project………………………………………………………….………...8

Literature Review……………………………………………………………..…….………..8
I. Law Enforcement Barriers…………………………………………………………..8
A. Systemic and Organizational Barriers………………………………….……..8
B. Inconsistency in Response to Victims……………………..……………….…..9
C. Representation of Women in Law Enforcement………………………………10
II. Prevalence and Victim Characteristics………………………..……………….….11
III. Intersectionality and Marginalized Communities………………………………..12

A. Male Victims…………………………………………………………………12
B. Toward Equitable and Trauma-Informed Interventions……………………..13
IV. Ethical Dilemmas in Healthcare Response to IPV……………………………….14
V. Shifting Beyond the Traditional Narrative………………………………………...15

Gaps in Policy and Legal Reforms…………………………………………………...17
Design and Methodology…………………………………………………………………...17
Search Methodology…………………………………………………………...…….18
Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria……………………………………………….…………19
Final Article Assessment and Selection……………………………………..……….19
Results……………………………………………………………………………………….19

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Overview of Findings………………………………………………………………...20
Key Findings and Relation to Research Question……………………….…………...20
Strengths of Research………………………………………………………………...24
Weaknesses of Research……………………………………..……………………….25

Reflections on Data Selection………………………………………………………..25
Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………26
Reimagining Law Enforcement's Role in IPV Intervention………………………….27

Addressing Diversity in Victim and Offender Profiles………………………………27
Representation and Gender Dynamics in Policing…………………………………..28
Moving Beyond Gender Paradigms………………………………………………….28
Toward Trauma-Informed and Victim-Centred Approaches…………………………29

Public Trust and Law Enforcement: Building Confidence Through Consistency…...29
Recommendations…………………………………………………………………………..30
Future Research………………………………………………………………………30
Practical Implications.………………………………………………………………..31
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………..32
References…………………………………………………………………………………...33
Appendix…………………………………………………………………………………….37

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The Role of Law Enforcement in the Implementation of Legislations Related to Intimate

Partner Violence in Canada
Intimate partner violence (IPV), also known as domestic violence, refers to actions by
a current or former partner that may lead to physical, sexual, or psychological harm (Stewart
et al., 2020). IPV can appear in various forms, including physical, economic, sexual, and
emotional abuse, with some authorities also recognizing stalking and financial abuse as
forms of IPV (Government of Canada, 2023; Stewart et al., 2020). A major challenge in
addressing IPV is the persistent the need for greater diversity among police officers,
particularly in terms of gender and language skills (Okeke-Ihejirika et al., 2020). With
Canada’s increasingly diverse population, officers who can communicate effectively in
multiple languages and bring varied cultural perspectives are vital to fostering trust and
improving responsiveness in IPV cases (Okeke-Ihejirika et al., 2020). Overall, IPV remains a
significant social issue in Canada, affecting people across different demographics, including
genders, sexual orientations, and socioeconomic backgrounds (Burczycka, 2019).
Background
In 2019, statistics revealed that over 100,000 Canadians aged 15 to 89 experienced
IPV, accounting for nearly 30% of all violent crimes reported to the police, a 6% rise from
2018 (Burczycka, 2019). Despite legislative advancements and increased societal awareness,
IPV cases continue to be largely underreported, with victims facing numerous barriers to
disclosing their experiences (Heron & Eisma, 2021). The underreporting of IPV is influenced
by various social and cultural factors, including the "gender paradigm" that frequently centres
on violence against women (Dutton, 2010; Dutton, 2011). Societal norms further hinder men
from reporting IPV due to stigmatization and restrictive notions of masculinity, which
associate vulnerability with shame (Addis & Mahalik, 2003; Goodey, 1997; Stanko &

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Hobdell, 1993). Canadian research, including national population surveys, highlights
demographic factors linked to IPV, such as younger partners, common-law relationships
over legal marriages, and separation (Savage, 2021; Stewart et al., 2020). Other factors
include socioeconomic stresses, such as low income, high stress, and substance misuse,
which are often correlated with increased IPV risk (Stewart et al., 2020). Qualitative
analyses revealed that police officers encounter various challenges when responding to IPV,
which include obstacles at systemic, organizational, and individual levels (Saxton et al.,
2022). Therefore, this study will analyse the current role of law enforcement in the
implementation of legislative measures governing IPV in Canada, focusing on issues related
to enforcement practices, accessibility to justice, and disparities in support. The aim is to
provide a comprehensive overview of how effectively law enforcement contributes to
addressing IPV through existing legislation.
Statement of Problem and Purpose of Study
IPV remains a pervasive issue in Canada, with qualitative analyses revealing
significant challenges faced by police officers in responding effectively to such incidents.
These challenges arise from systemic, organizational, and individual barriers, leading to
inconsistent police responses, particularly in risk assessment and management for affected
families (Saxton et al., 2022). Data from the Canadian Homicide Survey and the Canadian
Uniform Crime Reporting Survey (UCRS) highlight alarming discrepancies between policereported and self-reported IPV. In 2016, 79 % of IPV cases reported to law enforcement
identified women as victims, with men comprising 80 % of those charged. While the
majority of police-reported IPV (82 %) involves heterosexual partnerships, where women are
typically the victims and men the perpetrators, approximately 55 % of police-reported samesex IPV cases involve male partnerships (Stewart et al., 2020).

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This research aims to investigate the role of law enforcement in the implementation of
current legislative reforms related to IPV in Canada. It will evaluate how effectively these
reforms are being applied in practice, identify the real-world challenges that survivors face when
interacting with law enforcement, and explore additional strategies for preventing IPV.
Additionally, the study will assess how these reforms impact marginalized communities,
particularly Indigenous and immigrant populations, to develop comprehensive solutions that
improve prevention and intervention efforts in addressing IPV. The research will also identify
gaps in existing policies regarding the role of law enforcement in addressing IPV, evaluate the
practical challenges encountered by survivors, and explore additional strategies for enhancing
prevention and intervention efforts. This study aims to deepen the understanding of IPV in
Canada and inform future improvements in policy and law enforcement practices.

Research Question
The research aims to answer a quintessential question as how effectively law
enforcement is playing role in implementing and enforcing current IPV-related legislations
in Canada?
Philosophical Worldview
The research adopts an advocacy/ participatory worldview. It is a belief that research
should be closely connected to politics and political agendas, incorporating an action plan aimed
at reform (Petersen & Gencel, 2013). The study highlights the need to evaluate both legislative
and social aspects to comprehensively understand the effectiveness of reforms and support
systems. This approach seeks to create interventions that can lead to meaningful changes in the
lives of the participants involved (Petersen & Gencel, 2013). Henceforth, by integrating
stakeholder’s perspectives and focusing on actionable outcomes, the research aims to influence

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policy and practice, ensuring that reforms address real-world challenges and improve
the support available to IPV survivors.
Scope of the Project
This research delves into the critical role of law enforcement in implementing
legislation related to intimate partner violence (IPV) in Canada, with a comprehensive
scope that evaluates both current and proposed legal reforms. By rigorously assessing the
effectiveness of these legal frameworks, the study aims to provide evidence-based
recommendations that can guide policymakers toward enhancing IPV prevention and
intervention strategies. Emphasizing the real-world application of laws, this research will
analyse how effectively these measures serve diverse populations, thus offering a nuanced
view of legislative impact and implementation outcomes. In addressing policy gaps and
highlighting the need for cohesive support systems, this study aspires to make significant
contributions toward improving both legal and social responses to IPV in Canada.
Literature Review
IPV remains a significant public safety concern in Canada, with law enforcement
playing a crucial role in its prevention and intervention. This literature review critically
examines the themes emerging from recent research on IPV in Canada, focusing on law
enforcement's response, the intersection of victim characteristics with police intervention,
and the gaps in public policy. Various critical themes have been drawn from 15 key research
articles.
I. Law Enforcement Barriers
A. Systemic and Organizational Barriers

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Law enforcement's role in IPV intervention is fraught with challenges, as detailed in
Saxton et al.’s (2022) “Complexities of the Police Response to Intimate Partner Violence:
Police Officers’ Perspectives on the Challenges of Keeping Families Safe.” The study
identifies several systemic and organizational barriers that hinder effective police
intervention, including inadequate resources, inconsistencies in risk assessment, and a lack of
coordination with social services (Saxton et al., 2022). The research highlights that while
officers are often on the frontline of responding to IPV, they face significant personal and
emotional challenges in dealing with complex family dynamics (Saxton et al.’s, 2022). These
barriers can lead to inconsistent responses, putting victims at further risk.
B. Inconsistency in Response to Victims
Similarly, Saxton et al. (2021) discuss the experiences of IPV victims with police and
the justice system in Canada. The study put emphasizes on the mixed reactions victims have
towards law enforcement (Saxton et al., 2021). The study reveals that while some survivors
find the police response helpful, others feel the system fails to provide adequate support
(Saxton et al., 2021). This inconsistency in victim experiences suggests a need for more
uniform policies and training focused on IPV response. The research from Barrett et al.
(2011) in “Police Response to Intimate Partner Violence in Canada: Do Victim
Characteristics Matter?”, further illustrates the discrepancies in police interventions based on
victim characteristics such as race, economic status, and social background. This study raises
critical concerns about potential biases in law enforcement responses and calls for reforms
that ensure equitable protection for all victims, regardless of their sociodemographic
background (Barrett et al., 2011). In their study, Addis and Mahalik (2003) examine helpseeking behaviours among men, arguing that traditional notions of masculinity may hinder
their willingness to seek assistance. The authors propose that understanding the social
construction of masculinity can inform strategies to enhance help-seeking behaviours among

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men facing IPV (Addis and Mahalik, 2003). This perspective is vital for developing
more inclusive approaches to IPV intervention.
C. Representation of Women in Law Enforcement
The presence of female officers in law enforcement has steadily progressed since the
late 1800s; however, women remain significantly underrepresented and underutilized by
police agencies (Marshall, 2013). Despite advances in federal legislation aimed at
promoting gender equality, female officers continue to face barriers that limit their career
growth (Marshall, 2013). This underrepresentation raises questions about whether it is a
product of longstanding bias in this male-dominated field or the result of personal choices
by women to avoid the profession (Marshall, 2013). Research suggests that achieving
success as a female officer often depends on a critical mass of women within the force,
which remains lacking (Marshall, 2013).
The challenges women face in policing mirror broader issues encountered by women
entering traditionally male occupations (Marshall, 2013). For instance, while women in policing
have increased in number over the past two decades, they still encounter gender discrimination
and harassment. Even as many police departments have taken steps, sometimes under court
orders, to remove discriminatory practices, women still encounter numerous obstacles to full
integration (Marshall, 2013). Community organizations, advocacy groups, and constituents are
increasingly pressuring police departments to diversify their ranks, including hiring more
women and minority officers (Raganella & White, 2004).
In a profession historically seen as male-oriented, gender stereotypes and certain biases
among male officers continue to hinder the recruitment and retention of skilled women
(Raganella & White, 2004). Studies have shown that police culture is heavily masculine, and
women who succeed in this field often face pressures to conform to traditionally masculine

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traits, such as physical toughness, to gain acceptance (Raganella & White, 2004). This
expectation creates an unspoken belief within police organizations that only women who
demonstrate certain “masculine” qualities can be effective officers (Raganella & White,

2004). Success among women in law enforcement can disrupt the traditional male-dominated
image of policing, with some male officers perceiving this as a threat to their status
(Marshall, 2013). Male resistance to fully accepting women in all policing roles stems from
lingering stereotypes that paint women as physically weak, overly emotional, or mentally less
capable (Marshall, 2013). These barriers reflect not only individual biases but also a broader
patriarchal structure within police organizations (Marshall, 2013). This sub-theme of female
representation in law enforcement highlights a critical systemic barrier in the enforcement of
IPV legislation.
II. Prevalence and Victim Characteristics
Several studies highlight the widespread nature of IPV in Canada, particularly among
young women. Savage’s (2021) research on “Intimate Partner Violence: Experiences of
Young Women in Canada, 2018” provides a detailed account of the alarming rates of
violence experienced by women aged 15 - 24. The study draws attention to how younger
women are disproportionately at risk, with 29% of them reporting IPV compared to 10% of
women aged 25 and older (Savage, 2021). Furthermore, younger women are more likely to
face severe forms of abuse, including sexual and physical violence (Savage, 2021). For
instance, 8% of women aged 15–19 reported sexual assault by a partner, compared to just 1%
of older women (Savage, 2021).
This finding is consistent with Burczycka’s (2019), “Police-reported Intimate Partner
Violence in Canada, 2018,” where nearly 30% of all violent crimes reported to police were
related to IPV. A critical insight from Burczycka’s study is that while police data provide a

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grounded, empirical view of IPV prevalence, the statistics likely underestimate the issue, as
many victims do not report abuse to law enforcement (Burczycka, 2019). This underreporting
is a significant limitation of the available data. Both Savage and Burczycka's studies
underscore the need for more nuanced approaches to addressing the specific vulnerabilities of
young women in IPV cases. Policymakers must focus on the unique psychological and
emotional challenges these individuals face, ensuring that resources and support systems are
tailored to their needs. According to Ansara and Hindin (2010), IPV encompasses a range of
behaviours, including physical violence, sexual coercion, and psychological abuse. Their
research emphasizes that traditional definitions of IPV often fail to capture the complex
nature of abusive relationships, particularly regarding coercive control and the varied
experiences of victims (Ansara & Hindin, 2010). Their study highlights the need for a
broader conceptual framework to understand IPV's impact on health and help-seeking
behaviours (Ansara & Hindin, 2010).
III. Intersectionality and Marginalized Communities
A. Male Victims
Thandi’s (2012) qualitative study on “Working with South Asian Male Perpetrators of
Intimate Partner Violence in British Columbia, Canada” identifies unique challenges faced by
South Asian men in IPV situations, such as patriarchal attitudes, immigration-related stresses,
and acculturation difficulties. These factors not only complicate efforts to intervene but also
highlight the importance of culturally specific support systems in dealing with IPV among
immigrant populations. Further, the scoping review by Okeke-Ihejirika et al. (2018) on IPV
in Canada's immigrant communities highlights a significant gap in understanding and
addressing the experiences of male victims of intimate partner violence. While much of the
research and existing policies focus on female survivors, male victims, particularly within

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immigrant populations, are often overlooked (Okeke-Ihejirika et al., 2018). Immigrant men
may face unique challenges in seeking help due to cultural norms surrounding masculinity,
fear of stigma, and a lack of culturally appropriate services (Okeke-Ihejirika et al., 2018). The
review underscores the importance of expanding IPV research to include male victims,
recognizing that gendered power dynamics and social expectations play a role in how men
experience and respond to IPV (Okeke-Ihejirika et al., 2018). By broadening the scope of
IPV research and services to include male victims, particularly in immigrant communities,
policymakers can ensure more inclusive and effective interventions that address the diverse
needs of all survivors of IPV (Okeke-Ihejirika et al., 2018).
B. Toward Equitable and Trauma-Informed Interventions
Wathen et al.’s (2024), “A Scoping Review of Intimate Partner Violence Research in
Canada” also underscores the gap in research focused on Indigenous, racialized, and
2SLGBTQ+ communities. The review points out that while much of the research to date has
centered on white, cisgender women, marginalized populations remain underrepresented
(Wathen et al., 2024). This underrepresentation extends to law enforcement interventions, where
the needs of these communities are often overlooked, leading to inequitable access to resources
and justice (Wathen et al., 2024). Wathen’s review emphasizes the need for more equitypromoting research that addresses the specific vulnerabilities of these groups (Wathen et al.,
2024). Policymakers and service providers must prioritize trauma- and violence-informed
frameworks to ensure that all victims of IPV, regardless of background, receive appropriate and
effective interventions (Wathen et al., 2024). Belfrage et al. (2012) investigate the use of the
Spousal Assault Risk Assessment Guide (SARA) by police officers in Sweden, highlighting its
predictive validity in assessing IPV risk. Their findings suggest that structured risk assessments
can improve the management of IPV cases and reduce recidivism (Belfrage et al., 2012). This

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study underscores the importance of effective risk assessment tools in law enforcement's
response to IPV (Belfrage et al., 2012).
IV. Ethical Dilemmas in Healthcare Response to IPV
IPV presents complex ethical challenges for healthcare providers, particularly concerning
patient autonomy and the duty to protect (Cook & Dickens, 2009). IPV, primarily characterized
by male-perpetrated violence against women, is a pervasive global issue that often leads to
injuries ranging from bruises and abrasions to severe harm, hospitalization, or even death in
extreme cases (Cook & Dickens, 2009). Pregnancy can sometimes heighten IPV risks, but this
may be attributed to pregnant women’s increased interaction with healthcare professionals,
which could make IPV more detectable during medical visits (Cook & Dickens, 2009). IPV

often surfaces when women seek medical assistance due to physical health complaints or
emotional distress, such as depression. In these instances, providers may feel an ethical and
legal obligation to involve law enforcement, especially when there is a perception of
immediate risk. However, this raises ethical concerns if the patient does not consent, as some
victims may fear the potential consequences, like loss of financial support or care for their
children if their partners are detained (Cook & Dickens, 2009).
The ethical principle of "Do No Harm" is central to healthcare practice and becomes
complex in cases of IPV (Cook & Dickens, 2009). While providing treatment for injuries,
healthcare professionals face dilemmas about whether their duty of care includes taking
preventive action to protect patients from future violence (Cook & Dickens, 2009). Balancing the
immediate health needs with preventive intervention becomes challenging, as respecting patient
autonomy must be weighed against the potential harm of inaction (Cook & Dickens, 2009).
Furthermore, legal reforms, such as criminalizing spousal rape, aim to support women’s rights to
autonomy and safety but also bring additional challenges when patients are hesitant to pursue

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legal action (Cook & Dickens, 2009). Advocates and healthcare professionals argue for a
greater emphasis on awareness, professional training, and systemic support to help identify
IPV cases effectively and respond in ways that protect patient rights while ensuring safety
and well-being (Cook & Dickens, 2009). Furthermore, the recognition of IPV as a significant
health issue linked to HIV spread, mental and emotional distress, substance abuse, serious
injuries, and mortality has brought about complex ethical dilemmas, particularly in lowincome settings (Mannell & Guta, 2017). IPV research within the global health framework
raises unique ethical challenges, as discussed in Mannell and Guta’s (2017) analysis of a
qualitative study conducted in Rwanda.
V. Shifting Beyond the Traditional Narrative
A prominent theme in the literature involves the critical examination of gender
paradigms in IPV. Historically, the dominant perspective on IPV has portrayed it as an issue
predominantly involving male perpetrators and female victims (Dutton, 2010; Winterdyk et al.,
2017). This "gender paradigm" is widely discussed in the works of Dutton (2010) and
Winterdyk et al. (2017). Dutton (2010) critiques the traditional framing of IPV as primarily
male-driven, arguing that female-perpetrated violence is often overlooked. This narrow lens not
only perpetuates stereotypes about masculinity and femininity but also ignores the complexities
of IPV dynamics, including the motivations behind female aggression and the contextual factors
that may contribute to these behaviors. Winterdyk et al. (2017) similarly highlight the
limitations of focusing exclusively on gender in understanding IPV. They assert that this limited
perspective fails to account for the broader societal and cultural factors that contribute to
violence in intimate relationships (Dutton, 2010; Winterdyk et al., 2017). By solely attributing
violence to gender, we risk oversimplifying the issue and neglecting other critical variables such
as socioeconomic status, mental health, and experiences of trauma among both men and women
(Dutton, 2010; Winterdyk et al., 2017). This perspective also detracts from recognizing the

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diverse forms of victimization that can occur, including violence against men, which
is often underreported and stigmatized (Dutton, 2010; Winterdyk et al., 2017).
Moreover, the traditional narrative can obscure the experiences of marginalized
populations, such as LGBTQ+ individuals and those from different cultural backgrounds,
who may face unique challenges in the context of IPV (Dutton, 2010; Winterdyk et al.,
2017). Recognizing this diversity is crucial for developing inclusive policies that can
effectively address the needs of all victims, rather than perpetuating a one-size-fits-all
approach that primarily focuses on heterosexual relationships (Dutton, 2010; Winterdyk et
al., 2017). The shift away from the traditional gender narrative is essential for understanding
the true scope of IPV and crafting legislation that addresses the needs of all victims,
regardless of gender (Dutton, 2010; Winterdyk et al., 2017).
According to Mannell and Guta (2017), one another issue is highlighting IPV in
communities with limited economic resources for affected women, potentially exacerbating
their vulnerability without offering practical support. Additionally, conducting interviews in
settings with heavy governmental surveillance risks participant confidentiality, raising
concerns about the ethical use of personal narratives, which may inadvertently reinforce
victim stereotypes rather than empower local voices (Mannell and Guta, 2017). Furthermore,
framing IPV as a detached global health issue, rather than integrating it into broader feminist
advocacy, risks depoliticizing the issue and missing its socio-cultural roots (Mannell and
Guta, 2017). Mannell and Guta (2017) thus recommend that IPV research ethics should be
highly context-specific, adapting to the unique social, economic, and cultural realities of the
communities studied.
Gaps in Policy and Legal Reforms

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The need for comprehensive legal reforms is evident throughout the literature.
Paterson’s (2009) critique of “(Re)Constructing Women’s Resistance to Woman Abuse:
Resources, Strategy Choice and Implications of and for Public Policy in Canada” highlights
the shortcomings of Canada’s anti-abuse policies. The study argues that the current policy
framework limits women’s autonomy and choice in resisting abuse, and suggests that
reforms must focus on empowering women, particularly those from marginalized
communities, to take control of their resistance strategies (Paterson, 2009). Winterdyk et al.
(2017) stress the importance of universal screening and evidence-based prevention programs
but also notes the challenges in enforcing these strategies consistently across different legal
and cultural systems. Dutton (2010) challenges the traditional gender-based views of IPV,
arguing that male perpetrators are not the sole drivers of intimate violence. Aspinall et al.
(2024) explore the preparedness of Canadian police to assess coercive control in IPV cases,
identifying gaps in police training and resources. Their research emphasizes the need for
comprehensive training programs that equip officers with the skills to recognize and respond
to coercive control dynamics in IPV situations (Aspinall et al., 2024). These studies
collectively point to significant gaps in the legal framework addressing IPV in Canada
(Aspinall et al., 2024). Furthermore, standardized police training and community partnerships
are critical to improving the overall effectiveness of the legal and law enforcement response
to IPV (Aspinall et al., 2024).
Design and Methodology
This study employs a critical appraisal of existing literature to explore the role of law
enforcement in implementing the legislations related to IPV in Canada. The primary focus is
on analysing studies that address various facets of IPV legislation, including its
implementation, effectiveness, and impact on affected populations. The decision to conduct
a critical appraisal stem from the recognition that there is a wealth of information available

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within existing academic and policy literature. An extensive search process, which
included database queries, reviews of government reports, and analyses of peer-reviewed
articles, revealed a substantial body of work pertinent to the research question.
Consequently, no primary research was conducted, as the existing literature sufficiently
addresses the core themes of the study.
Given the discrepancies and varying perspectives present in the literature regarding
the effectiveness of IPV legislations, a critical appraisal is particularly suited for this
research. This approach facilitates the identification of similarities, differences, and gaps
across the literature, allowing for a nuanced understanding of the legislative landscape. The
appraisal encompasses a broad range of studies involving diverse participant demographics
and geographic locations within Canada. As the study involves secondary sources only, direct
ethical concerns related to confidentiality are minimal. However, care will be taken to ensure
that any representation of survivor’s experiences is respectful and avoids further
stigmatization or sensationalism. The outcomes of this research will not only highlight
effective legislative measures but also point to areas requiring reform or further investigation.
Search Methodology
To ensure a comprehensive literature review for the study, a methodological search
strategy was employed using well-defined keywords and databases. The initial keywords
selection aimed at covering a wide scope of literature related to IPV and legal reforms in
Canada. The primary keywords used included: intimate partner violence, partner abuse and
domestic violence, and intimate partner violence in Canada. The JIBC Library
(EBSCOhost) and Google Scholar were the two main resources used in the literature search.
The initial search yielded a large volume of results, necessitating further refinement to
narrow down to the most relevant studies.

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Inclusion/Exclusion Criteria
Application of inclusion and exclusion criteria helped to improve the outcomes. In
order to ensure that current information and legislation changes were included, articles
between 2001 and 2024 were given priority. There were also a few overarching ideas about
IPV from studies published between 1991- 2000. Articles that only addressed IPV in other
countries or that came before significant legal changes in Canada were also disqualified, as
were those that avoided discussing the legal ramifications of IPV and instead concentrated on
its social or psychological components. Using the inclusion - exclusion criteria, the search
parameters were adjusted to provide a more targeted search that focuses on the legal issues of
IPV in Canada. The results from both JIBC Library and Google Scholar are mentioned in
Appendix A.
Final Article Assessment and Selection
More pertinent material was successfully found using the search methods. The
implementation of rigorous inclusion and exclusion criteria was essential to this procedure,
which was carried out through a top-down methodology. First, the article’s titles were
examined for relevancy. Analyses of the abstract and conclusion were conducted if the title
satisfied the requirements. Articles that stayed within the parameters of the study were
chosen for thorough assessment; those that strayed were not. After the articles were chosen, it
was crucial to evaluate each one for validity, accuracy, and trustworthiness. When data
pertaining to Canada were unavailable, publications from other jurisdictions were used as a
point of comparison.
Results
Overview of Findings

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A review of the literature on IPV in Canada uncovers key themes regarding the role
of law enforcement, the experiences of victims, and systemic challenges. Findings reveal that
IPV remains a widespread issue affecting various populations across Canada and point to
significant shortcomings in current law enforcement policies and practices. This section
connects these findings to the research question by examining both the strengths and
limitations of existing studies, highlighting where law enforcement has been effective and
where critical gaps persist in IPV legislation implementation.
Key Findings and Relation to the Research Question
The literature highlights notable gaps and inconsistencies in law enforcement’s role in
handling IPV cases in Canada. Data from sources such as the Canadian Homicide Survey and
the Uniform Crime Reporting Survey (UCRS) underscore a substantial discrepancy between
police-reported and self-reported IPV incidents, with significantly lower police-reported
cases (Stewart et al., 2020). For example, in 2016, 79% of police-reported IPV cases involved
female victims, with males making up 80% of those charged. While heterosexual
relationships make up 82% of reported IPV cases, male same-sex IPV is also significant,
comprising about 55% of incidents (Stewart et al., 2020). This finding points to the limited
scope in police recognition and reporting, which may hinder effective intervention.
Further, IPV involving current or former intimate partners is the most common form
of violence reported to the police by women. In 2017, around 80% of IPV incidents reported
involved women and girls, with a significant number of cases involving young women aged
15 - 24. This group reported high rates of victimization, with over 15,000 police-reported
incidents in 2017, highlighting the need for targeted legislative measures to address their
unique vulnerabilities. Police data also show that IPV extends beyond physical violence to
include psychological abuse and control tactics, with 8% of women and 6% of men reporting

LAW ENFORCEMENT & IPV LEGISLATIONS IN CANADA

21

such behaviors. Despite this, many IPV cases go unreported due to fears of retaliation,
shame, or a lack of trust in police responses (Stewart et al., 2020; Saxton et al., 2022).
Bilateral violence, where both partners are involved in violent acts, also presents a
challenge. While it often involves less severe forms of violence, women remain at greater
risk of injury and trauma from severe IPV, such as sexual assault and stalking, with high rates
of police-reported injuries and attempted murder cases among women compared to men
(Stewart et al., 2020). These dynamics suggest the need for law enforcement to adopt
differentiated, trauma-informed approaches that consider both gendered and situational
aspects of IPV. Public perception of law enforcement’s handling of IPV is often negative,
with victims reporting low confidence in police response fairness, efficiency, and community
safety. This gap in trust highlights the need for improved officer training focused on
relational skills and nuanced IPV response strategies to foster better victim interactions and
consistent, supportive responses across Canada (Barrett et al., 2019).
Savage (2021) and Burczycka (2019) emphasize high IPV rates among young
women, who often face compounded vulnerabilities. Savage reports that approximately 29%
of women aged 15 - 24 experience IPV nearly 3 times higher than older women. Addressing
this demographic requires specialized legislative and policing measures, given their unique
risks. Moreover, underreporting remains a significant issue, with many victims refraining
from police involvement due to stigma or limited support systems.
The work of Ansara and Hindin (2010) reveals that traditional IPV definitions may fall
short in capturing its complex health implications, underscoring the need for legislative
reforms that incorporate health-related considerations to holistically support victims.
Meanwhile, Saxton et al. (2022) and Saxton et al. (2021) identify systemic barriers in law
enforcement’s IPV response, including insufficient officer training and limited collaboration

LAW ENFORCEMENT & IPV LEGISLATIONS IN CANADA

22

with social services, which hamper effective interventions. These findings point to the
urgent need for comprehensive training programs to equip officers with skills for navigating
IPV’s emotional complexities. Barrett et al. (2011) draw attention to disparities in police
responses based on victim demographics, raising concerns about biases that may affect
support levels for various groups. Bridging these gaps is critical to ensuring justice equity
for all IPV victims. Belfrage et al. (2012) recommend using structured risk assessments in
police protocols, which could enhance IPV response and reduce offender recidivism rates.
By incorporating evidence-based practices, law enforcement could improve its handling of
IPV cases and outcomes for victims.
The review of studies examining the prevalence of IPV during pregnancy reveals
alarming statistics across various countries, indicating both the scope and severity of IPV in
different cultural contexts. In an antenatal booking assessment in Ireland, 12.9% of 481
women reported a history of IPV (Cook & Dickens, 2009). Similarly, 18% of 2,199 women
surveyed in India reported experiencing domestic violence during their most recent
pregnancy, and in Uganda, 27.7% of 612 pregnant women screened in their second trimester
reported such violence (Cook & Dickens, 2009). In northern England, 17% of 475 pregnant
women disclosed histories of physical, emotional, or sexual abuse, while in Japan, 5.4% of
279 pregnant women reported IPV experiences (Cook & Dickens, 2009). In Turkey, 9.7% of
217 women reported being physically abused by their partner during their last pregnancy
(Cook & Dickens, 2009). This data is illustrated in Figure 1 in the Appendix B. Although
IPV is theoretically gender-neutral, it largely involves male-perpetrated violence against
women, and its reported prevalence varies based on definitions that range from cohabiting
heterosexual couples to broader categories encompassing past or present relationships,
whether heterosexual or same-sex (Cook & Dickens, 2009).

LAW ENFORCEMENT & IPV LEGISLATIONS IN CANADA

23

Research by Thandi (2012) and Wathen et al. (2024) highlights how IPV
disproportionately affects marginalized groups, including Indigenous, racialized, and
2SLGBTQ+ individuals. These studies emphasize the urgent need for inclusive policies that
address the specific challenges these populations face. Policymakers must prioritize
legislative reforms that ensure equitable access to justice and support for all victims,
recognizing the unique vulnerabilities in marginalized communities. Paterson (2009) and
Dutton (2010) critique existing IPV legal frameworks for failing to account for the complex
dynamics of IPV, including the experiences of both male and female victims and
perpetrators. Expanding these frameworks to include diverse IPV experiences is essential for
fostering a nuanced, gender-sensitive approach to policymaking.
Additionally, Dutton and Winterdyk et al. (2017) advocate for revisiting traditional
gender paradigms in IPV discussions, suggesting that recognizing IPV’s multifaceted nature will
result in more accurate legislative and policing policies. Moreover, Okeke-Ihejirika et al.’s
(2018), study highlights that immigrant, while viewed as an asset to Canadian society in terms of
population growth, labour supply, and cultural diversity, often face significant struggles with
IPV upon arrival. These struggles stem from limited support networks, the need to adapt to
changing family dynamics, and the challenge of navigating new gender roles within Canadian
society. A major finding from the review is the variation in perceptions and responses to IPV
across immigrant communities. The research suggests that there is a tendency to attribute IPV to
cultural values and practices brought by immigrants, particularly among Southeast Asian
communities in the Greater Toronto Area. This finding raises concerns about the risks of
stigmatizing immigrant cultures and overlooking the structural factors that contribute to IPV,
such as gender inequality and economic stressors. The study also highlights a significant gap in
the current services and policies aimed at addressing IPV, which are often not tailored to the
unique needs of immigrant women. As a result, these policies may inadvertently hinder women’s

LAW ENFORCEMENT & IPV LEGISLATIONS IN CANADA

24

ability to seek help or find effective solutions to their situations.
Furthermore, the study calls attention to the lack of research on male victims of IPV
within immigrant populations, pointing out that current literature is overwhelmingly focused
on female survivors. This gap limits the scope of IPV interventions and services, which fail
to account for the diverse experiences of all victims, including men and non-heterosexual
couples. The findings stress the importance of broadening future research to include these
overlooked groups and to incorporate the perspectives of stakeholders beyond just survivors.
This would ensure that the responses to IPV are more inclusive and effective, promoting
equity for all members of immigrant communities (Okeke-Ihejirika et al., 2018). Lastly, the
findings from Aspinall et al. (2024) underscore the need for enhanced police training to
effectively assess and address coercive control within IPV situations. By recognizing and
proactively responding to these behaviours, law enforcement can adopt more tailored,
effective IPV intervention strategies that align with Canada’s evolving legislative framework.
Strengths of Research
The reviewed studies collectively contribute to a rich and nuanced understanding of IPV
in Canada, showcasing various dimensions such as prevalence, victim characteristics, systemic
barriers, and the critical role of intersectionality. One of the notable strengths of this body of
research is its diversity in perspectives; the literature encompasses a range of populations,
including young women, marginalized communities, and different gender identities, which
allows for a more comprehensive exploration of the complexities surrounding IPV. This
multifaceted approach enhances the understanding of how various factors, such as socioeconomic status, cultural background, and gender norms, intersect to shape the experiences of
victims. Additionally, many of the studies are grounded in empirical evidence, utilizing robust

LAW ENFORCEMENT & IPV LEGISLATIONS IN CANADA

25

data to support their findings. This empirical foundation lends credibility to the arguments
made for necessary legislative reforms aimed at improving the response to IPV. Furthermore,
the emphasis on intersectionality within the research highlights the urgent need to address
equity in IPV responses, ensuring that the unique challenges faced by marginalized groups
are not overlooked. By bringing attention to these diverse experiences, the research advocates
for more inclusive and effective policy changes that can cater to the needs of all individuals
affected by IPV.
Weaknesses of Research
Despite strengths, several weaknesses were identified that limit the overall efficacy of
the research. A significant concern is the underreporting of data, particularly in studies
relying on police-reported statistics, which often fail to capture the full scope of IPV. This
underreporting can lead to a skewed understanding of the prevalence and nature of IPV,
obscuring the reality faced by many victims who do not seek help or report their experiences
to law enforcement. Additionally, some studies have a limited scope, focusing primarily on
specific populations or demographics, which can result in the exclusion of valuable insights
from other groups affected by IPV. This narrow focus may hinder the development of
comprehensive strategies that address the needs of all individuals experiencing IPV. Lastly,
the lack of longitudinal studies is a notable limitation within the body of research. Most
studies are cross-sectional, which restricts the ability to assess the long-term effects of IPV
on victims and the effectiveness of interventions over time. By not examining these
dynamics, the research may miss crucial opportunities to inform more sustainable and
impactful policy measures.
Reflections on Data Selection

LAW ENFORCEMENT & IPV LEGISLATIONS IN CANADA

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While the literature review effectively highlights critical themes and findings related
to IPV, there are notable areas for improvement in data selection that could enhance the
robustness of future research. One key consideration is the potential for broader inclusion
criteria when selecting studies. By expanding the criteria to encompass a wider range of
populations and contexts, researchers could achieve a more comprehensive understanding of
IPV, capturing the diverse experiences and challenges faced by various groups. This
inclusivity would help illuminate the nuanced factors influencing IPV dynamics and
facilitate the development of tailored interventions that cater to the unique needs of different
communities.
Moreover, an increased emphasis on qualitative research is essential for deepening
the insights into victim experiences and law enforcement responses. Qualitative studies can
provide rich, contextualized narratives that highlight the lived experiences of victims and
their interactions with the justice system, offering perspectives that quantitative data may
overlook. This qualitative lens could foster a more empathetic understanding of the
complexities surrounding IPV and enhance the ability to create supportive environments for
victims seeking help. Additionally, prioritizing longitudinal studies would be beneficial for
the field. Longitudinal research designs enable researchers to track changes over time,
allowing for a more in-depth exploration of the long-term effects of IPV and the
sustainability of various interventions. By focusing on the evolution of victim’s experiences
and the effectiveness of support systems over time, researchers can better inform policy
development and intervention strategies. Collectively, these enhancements in data selection
would contribute to a more nuanced and effective understanding of IPV, ultimately leading to
improved outcomes for victims and more responsive law enforcement practices.
Discussion

LAW ENFORCEMENT & IPV LEGISLATIONS IN CANADA

27

Reimagining Law Enforcement's Role in IPV Intervention
The literature emphasizes the need to reimagine the role of law enforcement in
intimate partner violence (IPV) cases, especially given the constraints posed by systemic
and organizational barriers. Studies by Saxton et al. (2021, 2022) reveal that current police
training and resources often fail to address the complex nature of IPV, which extends
beyond visible physical abuse to include less obvious forms such as coercive control and
psychological abuse. This underscores a need for standardized, trauma-informed
frameworks across all police jurisdictions in Canada to ensure consistent and sensitive
responses to all IPV cases, irrespective of resource disparities. Furthermore, supporting law
enforcement officers themselves is crucial. The emotional toll of working on IPV cases
often goes unnoticed, yet providing psychological resources and resilience training for
officers could enhance their responses and reduce burnout, ultimately benefiting both police
and victims. Standardizing these resources would allow officers to approach IPV cases with
increased empathy and professionalism.
Addressing Diversity in Victim and Offender Profiles
An intersectional approach is essential in understanding and addressing IPV among
Canada’s diverse communities. Traditional law enforcement responses often overlook cultural
and socioeconomic nuances, leading to disparities in intervention and outcomes. Wathen et al.
(2024) highlight gaps in addressing the needs of marginalized groups, such as Indigenous,
racialized, and LGBTQ+ individuals. Developing culturally specific training for officers would
allow for more sensitive handling of cases, considering unique factors such as acculturation stress
and stigma in marginalized communities. Training could also emphasize awareness of IPV
dynamics within LGBTQ+ relationships, where typical heteronormative assumptions may not
apply. Culturally attuned responses could increase trust between victims and law enforcement,

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28

encouraging higher reporting rates and enabling more effective interventions. OkekeIhejirika et al. (2018) similarly emphasize that immigrant male victims face additional
cultural and social stigma that often deters help-seeking. Integrating culturally informed
responses would allow law enforcement to approach cases with a deeper understanding of
factors like acculturation stress, family expectations, or community stigma.
Representation and Gender Dynamics in Policing
Marshall (2013) highlights the underrepresentation of women in policing and the
barriers they face, including gender stereotypes and a male-dominated workplace culture.
This lack of diversity limits the perspectives crucial for addressing the sensitive and often
gendered aspects of IPV cases. Increasing female representation in law enforcement may
bring more empathetic responses to IPV cases, benefiting victims by providing a supportive,
less intimidating environment. An emphasis on gender diversity in IPV response training
and policy development could also foster greater understanding and adaptability within law
enforcement, allowing for improved interactions with victims of all genders.
Moving Beyond Gender Paradigms
A prominent new insight is the necessity of moving beyond the traditional gendered
approach to IPV, where male perpetrators and female victims are presumed to be the norm.
Dutton (2010) and Winterdyk et al. (2017) highlight the limitations of this paradigm, as it fails
to consider male victims, LGBTQ+ relationships, and cases where violence may be bilateral.
Embracing a more inclusive approach acknowledges that IPV is not confined to a single
narrative but rather exists in diverse and complex forms, influenced by factors like mental
health, trauma histories, and power dynamics. This shift would encourage law enforcement
agencies and public policies to develop interventions that do not rely solely on gendered
assumptions but rather use evidence-based assessments that consider the full spectrum of IPV

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29

dynamics. Implementing such assessments, like the Spousal Assault Risk Assessment (SARA),
which Belfrage et al. (2012) found to be effective in other jurisdictions, could help police
identify nuanced risks and respond accordingly. These tools offer potential not only for enhanced
accuracy in risk evaluation but also for advancing a comprehensive IPV intervention model that
is inclusive of varied victim and offender profiles.

Toward Trauma-Informed and Victim-Centred Approaches
The discussion on policy gaps points to an urgent need for legal reforms that
prioritize trauma-informed, victim-centered approaches. Current policy frameworks are often
punitive rather than supportive, focusing on penalizing the offender instead of empowering
the victim. Paterson’s (2009) critique highlights how Canada’s policies limit autonomy,
especially for marginalized women, constraining their ability to make strategic choices in
resisting abuse. This calls for reforms that not only penalize offenders but also enhance
victim’s ability to navigate the justice system with dignity and agency.
To this end, Canada’s IPV policies could incorporate elements that empower victims,
such as the provision of legal advocacy services and psychological support tailored to each
victim's needs. Expanding legal protections, like restraining orders or relocation assistance
for those in high-risk situations, would provide a safety net that allows victims greater
control over their decisions. Such victim-centered policies would also benefit from an
increase in community-based support systems, which have been shown to offer vital
resources to those navigating the complexities of IPV.
Public Trust and Law Enforcement: Building Confidence Through Consistency
The literature reveals a notable gap between public perception and the role law
enforcement is supposed to play in protecting IPV victims. Public skepticism towards police,
rooted in inconsistent and, at times, inadequate responses, indicates a need for systemic changes

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30

that can rebuild trust. Barrett et al. (2019) underlines the importance of consistent, supportive
police responses to IPV cases. Strengthening this relationship could involve more transparent
communication between law enforcement and communities about the processes and
limitations in handling IPV, which could demystify police actions and alleviate victim’s
fears. Enhancing consistency in police responses might include the development of
specialized IPV response units trained to handle IPV's unique challenges, such as
psychological abuse and coercive control, and equipped with the resources to act swiftly and
effectively. Additionally, the integration of feedback mechanisms, where victims can report
on their experience with law enforcement safely and anonymously, could provide invaluable
data for refining police practices and highlight areas were victim support needs enhancement.
Recommendations
Future Research
Future research should prioritize long-term, in-depth studies to assess the lasting
effects of IPV on survivors and the sustainability of current interventions. Understanding
how individuals' experiences evolve over time and evaluating the effectiveness of various
support systems will offer insights crucial for shaping policies and practical approaches.
Addressing the challenge of underreporting IPV requires researchers to promote effective
data collection practices that capture a broad spectrum of victim experiences. This initiative
could include employing anonymous surveys and community-focused research projects
designed to uncover the true scope and complexity of IPV, extending beyond what is
currently captured in official crime statistics. Collaborating with community organizations
that work closely with marginalized groups will yield more representative data, revealing
unique obstacles faced by these communities. This inclusive approach enhances our
understanding of IPV and informs strategies that are more responsive to diverse needs.

LAW ENFORCEMENT & IPV LEGISLATIONS IN CANADA

31

Improving training programs for law enforcement is equally vital, as systemic barriers
often limit effective intervention in IPV cases. Training initiatives focused on implicit bias,
cultural sensitivity, and trauma-informed care are essential. By equipping officers with these
skills, police departments can foster greater trust and collaboration within the communities
they serve. This emphasis on specialized training not only enhances the quality of police
responses to IPV but also reassures victims that their experiences will be handled with
respect and empathy throughout their pursuit of assistance. Moreover, there is a pressing need
for gender-neutral studies that recognize IPV as an issue affecting individuals of all genders.
Future studies should investigate the experiences of male victims and female perpetrators to
understand how societal perceptions and gender norms impact IPV reporting and response.
Addressing these gender dynamics can provide a well-rounded view of IPV, transcending
traditional narratives and stereotypes.
Practical Implications
The findings emphasize the need for legislative reforms that address the realities of
IPV across diverse communities. Lawmakers should consider the unique experiences of
marginalized populations and develop policies that promote inclusivity and equity in IPV
responses. This may involve amending existing laws to address the complexities of gender
dynamics in IPV and ensuring that all victims, regardless of their identity, receive
necessary protections and resources. Engaging with communities affected by IPV is
essential to understanding their specific needs and challenges. Partnering with local
organizations can help create targeted interventions that resonate with victims and
effectively address the obstacles they face.
This collaborative approach in policymaking can lead to solutions that are responsive
and effective in addressing IPV. Raising public awareness about IPV and its impact across

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32

different demographics is also crucial for promoting societal change. Awareness
campaigns can challenge stereotypes and stigmas surrounding IPV, encouraging more
victims to seek help. By normalizing conversations about IPV and its complexities, society
can foster a cultural shift that prioritizes the safety and well-being of all individuals.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the role of law enforcement in implementing IPV-related legislation in
Canada faces substantial challenges that compromise the effectiveness of interventions and the
safety of victims. Systemic issues, such as resource strain, inconsistent risk assessments, and
insufficient collaboration with social services, hinder comprehensive support for IPV survivors
(Saxton et al., 2022). The inconsistent responses victims encounter highlights a need for
standardized training and policies to ensure fair, trauma-informed treatment across
demographics (Barrett et al., 2011). Additionally, the underrepresentation of women in law
enforcement poses limitations, as a more diverse and empathetic workforce could better address
the sensitivities involved in IPV cases (Marshall, 2013).

To enhance the efficacy of law enforcement’s role in IPV response, there must be a
shift toward a more inclusive understanding of IPV, recognizing the experiences of male,
2SLGBTQ+, and marginalized community members (Dutton, 2010; Wathen et al., 2024).
Embracing a trauma-informed approach that addresses the intersectional needs of all victims
is critical in fostering equitable access to protective resources. Furthermore, strengthening
collaboration between law enforcement and healthcare providers can support a more holistic
approach to IPV intervention, balancing immediate victim safety with long-term preventive
measures (Cook & Dickens, 2009). These shifts are essential to addressing the current gaps
in public policy and ensuring that legislative frameworks on IPV achieve their intended
impact in Canadian communities.

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33

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Appendices
Appendix A: Table 1
Initial and Revised Database Keyword Search and Hits
Database

Search Term(s)

Search
Results

Initial Search
JIBC Library Intimate partner violence
(EBSCO)

149,434

Google Scholar Intimate partner violence

1,750,000

JIBC Library Partner abuse and
(EBSCO)
domestic violence

29,690

Google Scholar Partner abuse and domestic 966,000
violence
JIBC Library Intimate partner violence in 5,929
(EBSCO)
Canada
Google Scholar Intimate partner violence in 342,000
Canada
Revised Searches

Reason for Revision

JIBC Library Intimate partner violence in 146
Refocused Approach, Increased
(EBSCO)
Canada and legal issues
Clarity and Applicability
Intimate partner violence in
Refocused Approach, Increased
Google Scholar Canada and legal issues
375,000
Clarity and Applicability
Intimate partner violence 1,143
Refocused Approach, Increased
JIBC Library OR domestic violence OR
Clarity and Applicability
(EBSCO)
partner abuse AND Canada
OR Canadian
Intimate partner violence 1,330,000 Refocused Approach, Increased
OR domestic violence OR
Clarity and Applicability
Google Scholar partner abuse AND Canada
OR Canadian
Note. This table summarizes the initial and revised search processes conducted to gather
relevant articles for the research paper. The first column lists the databases used, the second
column provides the search terms applied, and the third column shows the number of articles
retrieved. The revised searches reflect adjustments made to the keywords to improve the
focus, specificity, and relevance of the search results.

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38

Appendix B: Figure 1
Prevalence of IPV During Pregnancy in Different Countries

Note: The bar graph above illustrates the prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV) during
pregnancy across various countries, highlighting the widespread issue in diverse cultural settings.
According to Cook and Dickens (2009), prevalence rates range significantly, with 27.7% of
women in Uganda reporting IPV during their second trimester, followed by 18% in India, and
17% in northern England. In contrast, lower rates were found in Japan
(5.4%) and Turkey (9.7%), with Ireland at 12.9%. These statistics underscore the pressing
need for IPV interventions, especially in prenatal care contexts. From “Dilemmas in intimate
partner violence” by R.J. Cook and B.M. Dickens, 2009, International Journal of
Gynecology & Obstetrics, 106(1), 72–75 (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgo.2009.03.011).
Copyright 2009 by R.J. Cook and B.M. Dickens.