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No One Left Behind: Building Inclusive, Community-Led Emergency Management for
Ageing Demographics

Caitlin Cowan
ESMS-4900 Bachelor of Security and Emergency Management Studies Capstone
Justice Institute of British Columbia
Professor Bettina Williams
December 1, 2024

Author Note
This paper was submitted on December 1, 2024, for the Bachelor of Emergency and
Security Management (ESMS-4900) Capstone Project, taught by Bettina Williams, and is
6,480 words.

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Abstract

Older adults (65+) are increasingly vulnerable to disasters, a risk amplified by the rapid
growth of this demographic in Canada and the diminishing capacity of social systems to
provide adequate support. This paper explores community-based mitigation measures to
enhance disaster preparedness and social capital for older adults, anticipating that both social
and governmental resources may become increasingly limited. A literature review was
conducted to identify evidence-based interventions and key themes related to disaster
preparedness among older adults. Findings synthesize academic insights to propose several
interventions, including a local emergency leadership corps, intergenerational and peer
resilience partnerships, and a community currency volunteer program, emphasizing that these
initiatives should prioritize participatory decision-making, with older adults engaged as equal
participants in measures that support their safety. The study concludes with recommendations
for further exploration of these interventions and a broader examination of identified
knowledge gaps related to the disaster preparedness of older adults.

Keywords: older adult, disaster preparedness, community resilience, social capital

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Table of Contents

Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 4
Background .............................................................................................................................. 5
Research Question ................................................................................................................... 6
Theoretical Perspectives .......................................................................................................... 7
Research Design and Methodology ........................................................................................ 9
Literature Review .................................................................................................................. 11
Strengthening Social Networks ................................................................................. 11
Leveraging Life Experience ...................................................................................... 12
Community Engagement and Participation ............................................................ 14
Community-Based Approaches ................................................................................ 15
Discussion................................................................................................................................ 17
Proposed Interventions .............................................................................................. 17
Elder-Informed Approaches ..................................................................................... 22
Limitations .................................................................................................................. 23
Recommendations .................................................................................................................. 24
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 26
References ............................................................................................................................... 27

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No One Left Behind: Building Inclusive, Community-Led Emergency Management for
Ageing Demographics
As populations age, communities increasingly struggle to provide adequate support
during crises, particularly for older adults. These individuals are often left behind during
emergencies due to insufficient resources, strained support systems, and a lack of
preparedness tailored to their needs. This study explores how community resilience and
social capital can be strengthened to support older adults during emergencies, given the
limitations of public sector resources and based on the premise that older adults are better
prepared to respond to and recover from disasters when their social networks are
strengthened. This study will focus on "older adults," typically defined as individuals aged 65
and older, examining community-based approaches to augmenting disaster preparedness. As
the premise of this research is that government-funded measures are insufficient to meet the
growing needs of an ageing population, the study will focus on efforts that are non-publicly
funded and aimed at an audience of local communities, community leaders, volunteers, civicminded individuals, and non-government organizations, recognizing that the demand for care
will only increase as the population continues towards a geriatric majority. These
“grassroots” initiatives are typically informal, rely on community resources, and focus on
addressing immediate, local needs based on first-hand knowledge of the community's
challenges and strengths. This study analyzes academic literature to offer evidence-based,
community-level interventions that enhance disaster preparedness for older adults without
reliance on government infrastructure. The findings aim to inform and guide communities
and stakeholders in creating collaborative programs that bridge preparedness gaps, fostering
safer, more resilient communities for ageing populations.

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Background

In Canada, the ratio of seniors to working-age individuals is projected to rise sharply,
putting added pressure on healthcare, social services, and pension systems. This “dependency
ratio,” meaning the number of dependents (typically those under age 15 and over age 65) to
the working-age population (usually ages 15-64), is predicted to rise sharply over the next
three decades. In 2019, the dependency ratio stood at 50.5 dependents per 100 working-age
individuals but is projected to increase to 61 by 2031 and 67.8 by 2068 due to declining
fertility rates and an increasing number of retirees (Statistics Canada, 2019, 2021). A higher
dependency ratio means fewer working-age individuals supporting a larger retired
population, potentially straining incomes and living standards. Without sufficient workingage or paid individuals to support older adults, community and social-based initiatives may
become central to providing localized support and maintaining social cohesion as the country
faces these demographic challenges.
Another factor is the rise in disasters due to growing extreme weather events and
natural hazards across Canada, exposing more communities to intensifying floods, wildfires,
extreme heat, droughts, coastal erosion, and storms (Public Safety, 2019). These events
disproportionately affect older adults, who face the highest mortality rates during disasters
due to inadequate emergency planning (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2008; Public Safety
Canada, 2019). In addition to exclusion from disaster preparedness efforts, seniors often
experience worse outcomes due to physical and cognitive vulnerabilities, social isolation,
limited mobility, and reduced access to resources. Social isolation represents a major issue,
with fewer than 13% of older adults reporting having more than five individuals to rely on
during an emergency (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2008). Social isolation and the
failure to sufficiently support older adults in disaster preparedness is exemplified by the
record-breaking heatwave in British Columbia in June 2021, which led to approximately 434

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deaths of individuals aged 70 and above. Factors such as older age, along with material
deprivation (like lack of air conditioning) and social deprivation (such as limited social
networks), played a significant role in these fatalities (Henderson et al., 2022).
This combination of factors, including the growing proportion of older adults relative
to working-age individuals, the rising frequency and severity of disasters, and the inherent
vulnerabilities of older adults, represents the heightened and growing risk of adverse
outcomes for this demographic if action is not taken. Historically, Canada has relied on
immigration to offset demographic challenges. However, recent policy shifts aim to reduce
immigration levels to alleviate pressures on housing and social services (Fuss & Globerman,
2020). This reduction may exacerbate issues by limiting workforce growth. Addressing this
demographic shift will require not only a larger workforce in formal healthcare and
caregiving roles but also innovative care models, enhanced community-based services, and
increased support for unpaid caregivers. Without augmentation of the working population,
there is a risk that government support will be insufficient in adequately spearheading
disaster preparedness efforts that safeguard older adults. Slow or insufficient government
action often leaves vulnerable populations without adequate support, highlighting the need
for community-driven initiatives. While the last few decades have experienced a reliance on
government oversight for emergency management, there is an ongoing shift back to a focus
on community resilience (Shaw, 2013). This demands further exploration of effective
interventions that can be implemented at the community level, largely independent of
government support, to fill critical gaps in disaster preparedness.
Research Question
This study explores how community resilience and social capital can be strengthened
to support older adults during disasters, given the limitations of public sector resources. It
aims to answer the question: "What approaches can be taken to build and leverage

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community resilience and social capital to support older adults more effectively during
emergencies?" The study will focus on community-led initiatives, analyzing their
effectiveness and the role of grassroots efforts in enhancing resilience. By examining
academic articles, this review will identify key themes and strategies that communities can
adopt to bridge the gaps in disaster preparedness for older populations. To explore this main
question, this study will also seek to identify “What specific community-led initiatives have
proven effective in increasing the disaster preparedness of older adults?” This question aims
to uncover practical examples of initiatives that have succeeded in improving older adults’
knowledge of disaster preparedness, strengthening their social networks, and including older
adults in disaster preparedness planning and initiatives. Identifying and analyzing successful
programs will highlight models to replicate or adapt for Canadian communities.
The results of this study aim to empower volunteers, community leaders, nongovernment organizations, and concerned citizens with solutions that can be leveraged
without reliance on federal or provincial/territorial government intervention. By examining
evidence-based, community-led initiatives that can be implemented independent of formal
support systems, the study aims to provide actionable recommendations for increasing
resilience among older adults, providing communities with the tools to strengthen disaster
preparedness through localized, sustainable efforts.
Theoretical Perspectives
This study is grounded in theories of community resilience and social capital, which
assert that robust, interconnected communities are better equipped to respond to disasters and
provide necessary support, especially for vulnerable populations like the elderly. Social
capital refers to the networks, relationships, and norms that enable individuals and groups to
work collectively and support one another, particularly in times of need (Shaw, 2013). It
encompasses the resources accessible through connections within and between groups, which

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can facilitate cooperation, trust, and the exchange of information. Social capital is often
divided into three types: bonding (strong ties among close-knit groups), bridging
(connections between different groups), and linking (relationships with institutions or
individuals in positions of power) (Aldrich, 2014; Putnam, 1995).
Research has found that communities with higher levels of social capital have better
survival rates after natural disasters and that social connections and infrastructure
significantly shape resilience, disaster outcomes, and recovery (Aldrich, 2014; Nakagawa &
Shaw, 2004). Research also posits that social capital, like other forms of capital, can be
intentionally developed and maintained (Nakagawa & Shaw, 2004). Social capital theory
provides a framework for understanding how networks of relationships contribute to
resilience by facilitating trust, cooperation, and support among community members. For
older adults, social capital can be a critical resource, particularly in emergencies where
formal support systems may be strained.
The concept of community resilience is complementary to social capital theory as
both assert that positive disaster outcomes rely on the strength of the relationships and
capacities between people and amongst a community. Community capital denotes the
collective resources, strengths, and capacities of a community to adapt and recover postdisaster (Cutter, 2008). This perspective recognizes that a community's disaster resilience
relies not only on its infrastructure, environment, and institutions but also on the capacity of
its people to adapt and absorb to changing circumstances.
Community resilience theory posits that communities have inherent capacities to
respond to, recover from, and adapt to crises through their social, economic, and physical
resources. This approach underscores the shifting focus from an infrastructure-centric
approach to the fundamental roles of people and community in building resilience (Shaw,
2013). Historically, disaster management has been dominated by top-down approaches,

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emphasizing centralized control. However, recent trends highlight the importance of
community preparedness and the active involvement of local institutions, both formal and
informal, in disaster risk reduction. This perspective aligns with the evolving understanding
that effective disaster prevention requires integrating local knowledge and fostering
community resilience. This concept of community capital as critical to resilience is well
summarized by Shaw:
It is rather difficult to continue the disaster risk reduction as a stand-alone activity. To
enhance the resilience of the communities, it needs to be merged with the daily needs,
which are related to welfare, social protection, and health-related activities. (2013, p.
356)
For older adults, community capital theory emphasizes the importance of community
structures and shared resources in enhancing their safety and well-being during emergencies
while shifting the narrative away from the misconception that responsibility rests solely on
government institutions.
Research Design and Methodology
Research of relevant literature began by identifying key terms such as "ageing,"
"older adults," "social networks," "disaster preparedness," "emergency preparedness," "social
capital," "community," and "community resilience”. Searches were conducted using the JIBC
Library system and Google Scholar, resulting in an initial pool of over 8,000 articles related
to older adults and disaster preparedness. The search was then refined using inclusion and
exclusion criteria.
The inclusion criteria focused on articles containing terms like "older adults,"
"ageing," "geriatric," "aged 65+," "disaster preparedness," "emergency preparedness," "social
capital," "social network," and "community”. The date range was limited to the past 20 years
(from 2004 to the present date) to reflect contemporary perspectives in disaster research.

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Eligible studies specifically targeted non-institutionalized older adults (65+) in community
settings to address disaster preparedness among individuals likely lacking formal support.
Only empirical studies, case studies, literature reviews, and qualitative or quantitative
research from peer-reviewed sources or reputable organizational reports were included to
ensure reliability. Included studies needed to examine community-level interventions,
particularly those driven by grassroots or community-based efforts.
Exclusion criteria removed literature related to COVID-19, healthcare, or mental
health, as these studies often focus on medical interventions or are specific to institutionalized
older adults. This research instead focuses on older adults living independently, who may
lack formal support and thus benefit from enhanced disaster preparedness. Literature centred
on policy or legislative recommendations was also excluded, as the research premise is that
government measures alone may not meet the growing needs of an ageing population.
Instead, the study prioritizes grassroots initiatives, emphasizing low-cost, community-driven
approaches led by community members, leaders, or non-government organizations rather
than provincial, territorial, or federal governments. Studies that did not specifically target
older adults (typically aged 65 and above) or were unrelated to disaster or emergency
preparedness were excluded to ensure a focused examination of the target demographic and
topic. Due to the limited availability of studies specific to Canada, geographic location was
not applied as a filter. This process resulted in a final selection of approximately 280 articles.
A total of 25 articles were selected for abstract and literature review, each
highlighting various approaches to building and leveraging community resilience and social
capital to support older adults during emergencies. These articles focus on the importance of
social networks, community engagement, community-based measures, and collaborative
interventions in supporting older adults. Of the 25 articles, 17 providing practical findings to

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address the unique needs of older adults during emergencies were selected for further review
and analysis.
Literature Review
Several themes emerged from the analysis of the literature which provide insight on
community-based approaches to support older adults more effectively during emergencies.
These include the value of strengthening informal social networks, engaging older adults in
community planning, leveraging the life experience of older adults, and advocating for
community-based approaches to disaster preparedness.
Strengthening Social Networks
The literature emphasizes the role of social capital and informal networks in
increasing disaster preparedness. These networks, consisting of family, friends, neighbours,
and community members, often serve as first responders, providing immediate assistance
during emergencies and allowing individuals to receive warnings (Aldrich & Kyota, 2017).
They also support older adults in disaster preparation, locating shelter and supplies, and
obtaining immediate aid and initial recovery assistance (Aldrich & Meyer, 2015). Howard et
al. (2015) and Breen et al. (2024) found that strong connections within neighbourhoods
facilitated resource sharing and support during crises between older adults. Similarly,
Kawachi et al. (2020) refer to social capital as a type of "informal insurance" that community
members can rely on during crises, finding that tightly knit communities are more effective in
mobilizing assistance to those in need, even before first responders arrive.
Social and geographic isolation amongst older adults is frequently highlighted as a
risk that can be mitigated through strengthened social networks (Aldrich & Kyota, 2017;
Bogdan et al., 2024; Wistow et al., 2015). Breen et al. (2024) found that the social capital of
older adults contributed to the formation of therapeutic communities, groups where
individuals support one another, fostering social bonds and collective action during recovery

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efforts. Ashida et al.’s (2017) findings underscore the importance of personal emergency
support networks for older adults, particularly in rural areas where public resources are often
limited.
While literature generally examines social capital’s role as a whole in providing more
positive outcomes for older adults, Kawachi et al. (2020) note that strengthening social
networks needs to be incorporated into disaster mitigation, not just disaster preparedness,
reinforcing that adequate preparedness is not siloed from other resilience-building activities.
Brockie and Miller (2017) warn that over-reliance on bonding capital (social ties among
close-knit groups) can lead to isolation from the broader community, the implication being
that interventions may need to go beyond building older adults’ immediate networks to
proactively strengthen connections between different groups and relationships with
institutions or individuals in positions of powers. These findings suggest that these informal
networks are central to disaster preparedness and call for measures to encourage the
development of informal support networks that include friends, neighbours, and local
community members.
Leveraging Life Experience
The next theme frequently highlighted in the literature is the value of incorporating
older adults’ valuable life experiences and knowledge to inform disaster preparedness
strategies. While many studies tend to frame older adults primarily as vulnerable populations
in disaster contexts, these articles provided recommendations on how older adults actively
contribute to disaster preparedness through their experience and relationship-building. This
perspective challenges the narrative that older adults are merely vulnerable, instead
highlighting their potential as active contributors to community resilience. Howard et al.
(2015) emphasize that older adults are often seen as "at risk" rather than as assets who can
mobilize social capital and support their communities during disasters. This perspective limits

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the understanding of how older adults can play a proactive role in disaster preparedness and
recovery. Madsen et al. (2019) assert that communities need to reframe how they view older
adults, shifting away from a deficit-based narrative to one that acknowledges their valuable
economic and social contributions. They found that older adults contribute to their resilience
and that of their communities through their stories, interactions, and relationships and provide
leadership and economic benefits through activities such as volunteering.
Similarly, Brockie and Miller (2017) challenge the assumption that older adults are
inherently vulnerable to disasters. They found many older adults displayed strong resilience,
drawing on their life experiences and previous disaster exposures to cope. This aligns with
Breen et al. (2024), who observe that older adults possess unique life experiences and
knowledge that can be leveraged during disasters. They found that older adults’ long-standing
connections and familiarity with the community allowed them to mobilize resources
effectively and support one another, thus enhancing the overall recovery efforts. These
individuals hold insights from past disasters, which contribute to better preparedness and
planning for future events.
This position is broadly supported in the literature, including Howard et al. (2015) and
Wistow et al. (2015), who found that the experiences of older adults not only enhance their
resilience but also serve as a resource for educating and supporting others in the community.
Bogdan et al. (2024) mirror this stance, noting that the lived experience of older adults can
provide valuable insights into effective preparedness strategies and community resilience.
Aligning with these findings, Rauhaus and Guajardo (2021) encourage initiatives that
promote sharing knowledge. The literature challenges the narrative of vulnerability, instead
promoting the active role of older adults in community resilience. These findings indicate that
approaches to increasing the preparedness of older adults should be participatory and engage
older adults as valuable contributors rather than unempowered victims or burdens.

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Community Engagement and Participation
Recognizing the valuable contributions and insights of older adults, the research also
advocates for the inclusion of older adults in community planning and decision-making
processes. Howard et al. (2015) found a significant desire among older adults to participate in
local disaster planning and decision-making processes. Participants expressed frustration at
feeling excluded from formal planning despite their willingness and capacity to contribute.
Older adults are capable of taking on leadership roles within their neighbourhoods, such as
organizing local disaster preparedness initiatives or serving as points of contact for
information dissemination. Bogdan et al. (2024) note programs that encourage participation,
such as community workshops and local committees, can empower older adults to take active
roles in disaster preparedness and response and can lead to more effective and tailored
communication and resource distribution, as their unique needs and preferences are better
understood. This aligns with literature findings, which demonstrate that communities with a
history of collective action and social capital are better equipped to respond to and recover
from disasters (Nakagawa & Shaw, 2004). Kawachi et al. (2020) found that the “doing”
aspect of social capital, through engagement and participation, strengthened community ties.
Rauhaus and Guajardo (2021) promote that this participatory approach not only empowers
older adults but also helps build a sense of community ownership over disaster preparedness
efforts.
On the theme of increasing older adults' community engagement, Aldrich and Meyer
(2015) suggest practical initiatives, including time banking and community currency systems,
which incentivize volunteerism, as effective methods for building social capital and
enhancing community resilience. In time banking and community currency systems,
participants earn credits for performing community services, such as working in communal
gardens, which they can redeem for various services like moving assistance or discounts at

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local businesses (Lasker et al., 2011; Lietaer, 2004). Such systems have been particularly
successful in Japan, where they not only foster volunteerism and strengthen community ties
but also provide essential support services for the elderly population (Aldrich & Meyer,
2015). These systems, which increase community engagement, leading to higher levels of
social support, provide models for the development of interventions. Literature findings
suggest that engaging older adults in community planning, decision-making, and community
initiatives leverages their valuable insights and leadership potential while strengthening social
capital and fostering a sense of shared ownership.
Community-Based Approaches
Acknowledging the limitations of public support systems, the literature advocates for
community-based approaches to supporting older adults through both interventions aimed at
disaster preparedness and those to enhance social and community networks.
The PrepWise program examined by Ashida et al. (2017) serves as a model for
community-based interventions for improving disaster preparedness among older adults by
increasing their number of emergency contacts. Jaboob et al. (2022) conducted a study of a
similar program aimed at enhancing disaster preparedness for older adults by helping them
identify additional support network members. The intervention led to increased disaster
management self-efficacy, as participants who had more people they could rely on in
emergencies showed greater improvements in their confidence and preparedness. Howard et
al. (2015) and Bogdan et al. (2024) recommend similar interventions, such as community
groups focused on disaster preparedness, allowing older individuals to connect and
collaborate on planning efforts. Suggested approaches also included those for “buddy
systems” to enhance older adults’ access to support during emergencies, where members can
check in on each other and provide mutual aid (Bogdan et al., 2024; Rauhaus & Guajardo,
2021). Kim and Zakour (2017) suggest an intervention model where community groups

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identify vulnerable individuals and provide emergency information through social networks
to enhance older adults' disaster preparedness.
While some literature calls for preparedness-focused efforts, other recommendations
focus on promoting community initiatives that foster social connection, thereby indirectly
increasing community resilience. These include recommendations for initiatives that promote
social events, community gardens, and local gatherings that can create spaces for interaction
and relationship-building (Ashida et al., 2017; Wistow et al., 2015). Aldrich and Meyer
(2015) promote focus group meetings and social events as a way to increase trust and social
cohesion. Involvement in these initiatives can also serve to increase community engagement
through fostering a “sense of place” (Kawachi et al., 2020; Madsen et al., 2019). This sense
of place fosters feelings of mutual trust and dependence, increased awareness of disaster
management, and volunteer opportunities and responsibilities, which in turn support disaster
preparedness (Aldrich & Meyer, 2015). Another example demonstrating how embedding
older adults within larger social networks can improve their sense of belonging and efficacy
in disaster situations is the Ibasho program in Japan, explored by Aldrich and Kyota (2017).
The Ibasho program, which translates to "one's place," encourages older adults to engage in
leadership activities and participate in a supportive social network. By providing a physical
space for various community activities, Ibasho reduced social isolation, fostered connections
among residents, and empowered the elderly to take active roles in their communities,
thereby enhancing overall community resilience. Sugiyama et al. (2022) found similar results
in their examination of third places, finding they can play a role in building social
connections for older adults. Their review found that the presence of easy access to
community facilities, local businesses, and green spaces was conducive to social interaction
among older residents and may contribute to the development and maintenance of social
networks.

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While the literature emphasized the participation of older adults in community-based
measures, Aldrich and Kyoto (2017) noted a challenge in engaging older adults, as many saw
themselves as individuals to be cared for rather than active participants. To address this,
during their research, a concerted effort was made prior to initiation to establish a new
community norm. Aldrich and Kyoto (2017) found that a sense of efficacy was crucial for
civic engagement; individuals who felt their voices were valued and impactful were more
likely to participate in public meetings, vote, and provide feedback. These findings offer
practical intervention models that can be adapted and applied to various community contexts.
Discussion
The research provides observations and recommendations that have been synthesized
into several practical interventions and considerations aimed at enhancing disaster
preparedness and strengthening social networks for older adults. By focusing on communitybased approaches, these strategies offer actionable steps to improve their inclusion in
preparedness efforts. Through fostering connections and promoting active participation, these
interventions aim to build resilience and ensure that older adults are supported effectively
within their communities.
Proposed Interventions
Three interventions based on literature findings have been developed that provide
potential mechanisms for increasing the disaster preparedness and social capital of older
adults. These interventions are intended to be implementable at the community level without
government intervention or requiring significant costs. These interventions can be adapted,
initiated, and maintained by community leaders in collaboration with the older adults they
serve.

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Local Emergency Leadership Corps
The first proposed intervention is a local emergency leadership corps for older adults,
which provides an organized framework to actively engage this demographic in disaster
preparedness while leveraging their life experience, community knowledge, and existing
social networks. This initiative aligns with literature findings that emphasize the importance
of integrating older adults into community disaster planning and decision-making processes
to improve preparedness and resilience (Bogdan et al., 2024; Howard et al., 2015). By
positioning older adults as leaders within their neighbourhoods, the Corps fosters a sense of
ownership over local preparedness efforts, making them advocates for safety and resilience
while enhancing their own self-efficacy and sense of purpose (Aldrich & Kyoto, 2017).
The Corps functions through older adults organizing into teams that take on
leadership roles in their communities to increase disaster preparedness. The Corps could
engage in practical activities such as organizing workshops and training sessions tailored to
the needs of their communities, including emergency kit preparation, creating evacuation
plans, and providing first aid and CPR training. They could coordinate communication and
information dissemination, acting as liaisons between residents and emergency services to
ensure timely and accurate communication and establishing neighbourhood communication
networks, such as phone trees or social media groups, for rapid information sharing.
Activities could consist of conducting local risk assessments by mapping neighbourhood
vulnerabilities, such as identifying residents with mobility challenges, coordinating
neighbourhood emergency drills to practice evacuation routes and response procedures, and
organizing mock disaster scenarios to test readiness and identify gaps in plans. The Corps
could become a hub for older adult preparedness and advocacy, contributing to inclusive
emergency plans that address the needs of older adults and collaborating with local
governments to ensure their needs are considered in broader disaster planning.

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By actively participating, Corps members would be recognized as valuable
contributors, which reflects shifting the narrative from older adults as passive recipients of
care to empowered, essential contributors to community resilience (Madsen et al., 2019). This
approach also draws on the principles observed in the Ibasho program, where older adults
took on leadership and engagement roles that fostered community resilience and reduced
isolation (Aldrich & Kyota, 2017). It also supports the development and strengthening of
informal social networks, as Corps members would collaborate with other residents and
community groups, thereby expanding their connections and creating additional social
support systems. This ties to the research, which consistently reinforces the importance of
these networks in emergency preparedness, where strong community ties facilitate resource
sharing, information dissemination, and mutual aid (Aldrich & Meyer, 2015; Breen et al.,
2024). In this way, the leadership corps would also indirectly enhance disaster resilience by
reducing the risk of social and geographic isolation often experienced by older adults
(Bogdan et al., 2024; Wistow et al., 2015). This intervention offers a cost-effective,
grassroots approach to enhancing disaster preparedness for older adults while addressing the
shortage of working-age individuals by leveraging the desire and capacity of older adults to
contribute to their communities.
Intergenerational and Peer Resilience Partnerships
The second proposed intervention is for intergenerational and peer resilience
partnerships, or a “buddy system,” where both older adults of the same age group and
individuals from different age groups form supportive partnerships to check in on each other,
share resources, and provide mutual assistance in preparation for and during emergencies.
This approach embraces the therapeutic community model, where mutual support fosters a
sense of belonging, purpose, and empowerment (Breen et al., 2024). Intergenerational pairing
connects older adults with younger community members (e.g., teenagers, college students, or

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young professionals) to exchange knowledge and skills. Older adults contribute mentorship in
areas such as career development, problem-solving, and interpersonal relationships. They
share historical knowledge, passing down traditions, stories, and community history to
preserve cultural heritage. Younger community members benefit by learning practical skills
like gardening, sewing, and financial literacy, as well as receiving tutoring and guidance. In
turn, older adults are supported by younger counterparts through assistance with technology
and providing support with tasks requiring physical capabilities. In the context of disasters,
this partnership fosters mutual support, with older adults contributing their time, experience,
and leadership, while younger members can leverage their technical expertise and physical
capabilities to support their older partners. This intervention reflects the findings of Rauhaus
and Guajardo (2021), highlighting the value of inclusive, intergenerational approaches in
disaster recovery.
Peer partnerships among older adults provide mutual support by creating a system
where individuals have someone to rely on and check in with regularly. By fostering
connections, these partnerships ensure that individuals have a network of trusted peers,
increasing the number of emergency contacts, reducing social isolation, improving access to
assistance and information, and strengthening community ties while enhancing overall
resilience. These partnerships could be created through community programs that facilitate
regular social gatherings, pair individuals with complementary needs or interests, and provide
opportunities for shared activities and mutual support.
Incorporating both peer and intergenerational connections strengthens informal social
networks and bolsters self-efficacy among older adults. Research highlights that these support
networks, especially among neighbours, facilitate the sharing of resources and information,
making them valuable for preparedness and response (Aldrich & Kyota, 2017; Ashida et al.,
2017). By allowing older adults to act as both providers and recipients of support, the buddy

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system fosters self-efficacy, which is a key factor in civic engagement and proactive
participation. Engaging in these roles helps older adults feel more capable and confident in
managing emergencies (Aldrich, 2017). It acknowledges the role of older adults as active
contributors and the value of their life experience and local knowledge, which can greatly
enhance community preparedness and recovery efforts (Howard et al., 2015; Madsen et al.,
2019). The buddy system also strengthens the sense of responsibility within the community
by encouraging frequent interaction, shared preparation efforts, and mutual support. By
creating an environment where older adults can rely on both peers and younger members of
their community, this initiative builds a tightly knit network that promotes overall resilience,
readiness, and the well-being of all community members.
Community Currency Volunteer Program
The final proposed solution draws inspiration from community currency and time
banking initiatives, where participants earn credits for volunteering and community
involvement, redeemable for services or goods within the community (Lasker et al., 2011;
Lietaer, 2004). The literature frequently highlights older adult isolation and a sense of
diminishing value (Aldrich & Kyoto, 2017; Bogdan et al., 2024; Wistow et al., 2015).
Through participation in a community currency volunteer program, older adults not only
strengthen their social networks but also maintain and renew their role as active contributors
to the community. Older adults can engage in activities that are either specific to disaster
preparedness or general community tasks. For instance, they could provide practical support
such as home repairs, gardening, and transportation. They could also offer educational
opportunities like tutoring and mentorship. Credits could be earned for caregiving services
such as childcare or eldercare and providing companionship or emotional support to isolated
individuals. Older adults can contribute to broader community initiatives by participating in
community clean-ups, organizing or participating in arts events, performances, or workshops,

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assisting with event planning, coordination, or outreach efforts, and supporting local nonprofits or community projects with clerical work or fundraising. By engaging in activities that
directly support disaster preparedness, older adults could earn credits for attending
preparedness workshops, helping organize emergency drills, or participating in local
resilience-building projects. In return, they could earn time credits or community currency to
access services like personal care, home maintenance, transportation, or tech support.
This approach promotes volunteering among older adults by offering tangible rewards
for community participation, helping to break down the common perception of older adults as
passive recipients of care (Aldrich & Meyer, 2015). Instead, they become valuable
contributors to the community. By actively participating, older adults would naturally build
and strengthen their social networks. These networks would serve as support systems during
a disaster, as older adults would have trusted contacts to rely on for information, assistance,
and resources (Kim & Zakour, 2017). Furthermore, consistent engagement in community
activities enhances self-efficacy, making participants more likely to feel confident in their
ability to manage during a disaster and more likely to seek proactive ways to prepare
(Aldrich, 2017).
Elder-Informed Approaches
A key takeaway from the literature is the importance of elder-informed approaches,
moving beyond prescriptive measures and perceptions of them as passive or incapable.
Before initiating proposed solutions, older adults' perspectives should be elicited on
initiatives intended for their benefit. Engaging older adults in the planning and design phases
of preparedness programs not only ensures that solutions are tailored to their unique needs
but also fosters a sense of ownership and relevance (Bogdan et al., 2024; Howard et al.,
2015). Studies highlight that building self-efficacy among older adults and empowering them
to see themselves as capable contributors to community resilience is a critical factor in

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achieving meaningful participation (Aldrich & Kyoto, 2017). Thus, before implementing
solutions recommended by the research, communities should prioritize consultations with
older adults, inviting their input on program design and encouraging active roles in
preparedness efforts. Such engagement strengthens both the program’s effectiveness and the
older adults' confidence in their ability to support and protect themselves and others during
emergencies (Ashida et al., 2017; Rauhaus & Guajardo, 2021).
Limitations
This study has several limitations that impact the generalizability and practical
applicability of its findings. Firstly, the scope of the literature reviewed was limited, with
only approximately 20 studies assessed, many of which included small sample sizes (e.g.,
Ashida, 2017, with 27 participants) and were based on self-reported data. Self-reported data,
as noted by Aldrich (2017), can introduce biases, particularly when responses are influenced
by cultural factors, as many of these studies were conducted in Japan or other regions with
distinct social dynamics. Consequently, these findings may not fully capture the Canadian
context or reflect the experiences of older adults in other cultural settings. Additionally, this
research did not directly examine the cost and resource requirements for implementing the
community-based disaster preparedness strategies reviewed. This omission makes it
challenging to determine which strategies would be most feasible or sustainable in practice,
particularly in resource-constrained settings. The study also assumed that communities have
both the interest and capacity to adopt these strategies without assessing specific community
resources or the potential for private-public partnerships that could support such initiatives.
Moreover, while social capital is broadly recognized as beneficial in disaster contexts,
it was challenging to measure the direct impact of increased social capital on disaster
preparedness outcomes. Although existing studies often suggest that higher social capital
correlates with improved outcomes, there was limited evidence showing how specific

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interventions translated into tangible improvements in disaster preparedness or support during
emergencies. This limitation highlights the challenge of linking the theoretical benefits of
social capital directly to practical results in disaster scenarios. Lastly, the research exhibits a
bias towards non-governmental, grassroots initiatives, potentially overlooking the role and
capacity of governmental entities in disaster preparedness. This assumption could skew
perceptions of community versus government responsibility and capacity, making it
important to consider a balanced approach that accounts for both public sector involvement
and community-based efforts.
Despite these limitations, the study has notable strengths, as it is grounded in
principles of social capital and community resilience, offering a valuable foundation for
future research and practice among scholars, decision-makers, and community leaders. It
synthesizes theoretical perspectives and current research that can be further developed and
provides important insights into disaster preparedness for older adults, an area that has
received limited scholarly focus.
Recommendations
The research identifies several knowledge gaps requiring further study. It also
recommends further exploration of proposed interventions with an emphasis on participatory
decision-making that includes older adults as equal participants in disaster preparedness.
This study reveals substantial knowledge gaps in the research on disaster
preparedness for older adults, particularly in Canada, especially under the escalating impacts
of climate change (Bogdan, 2024). While research generally acknowledges the vulnerability
of older adults in disaster scenarios, few studies address their emergency support networks,
particularly in rural areas where social isolation is prevalent (Ashida, 2017). This focus on
older adults who are already integrated into networks overlooks those who are socially
isolated and, thus, more likely to experience adverse outcomes during disasters. Another

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primary gap is the limited availability of statistically significant findings due to small sample
sizes and the narrow cultural or regional focus of many studies, such as those conducted in
Japan. This restricts the applicability of insights to the Canadian context, where unique social
and demographic factors are at play.
Additionally, reliance on self-reported data introduces potential biases, which may
affect the reliability and validity of findings on older adults’ preparedness. The
underrepresentation of intersecting vulnerabilities, such as ethnicity, Indigenous identity,
gender, sexuality, health, and socioeconomic status, was also not well represented in the
literature. Limited research explores how these factors impact older adults’ preparedness and
resilience, leaving a gap in understanding how disaster preparedness efforts can be tailored to
meet the needs of diverse and marginalized populations. Additionally, existing studies tend to
frame older adults mainly as vulnerable, passive recipients of support rather than active
contributors to community resilience, overlooking the role they could play in supporting
preparedness efforts.
Future research should focus on assessing the feasibility, cost analysis, outcomes, and
efficacy of the proposed interventions discussed, including the local emergency leadership
corps for older adults, intergenerational and peer resilience partnerships, and volunteer
community currency programs. It should also explore effective ways to introduce these
initiatives to communities, particularly within a Canadian context, to determine their cultural
and practical suitability. Further study should include assessments with older adults to
evaluate their interest, likelihood of participation, and perceived usefulness of these
measures. Additionally, research should gather older adults’ input on specific interventions
they would find helpful and explore ways to better include them in initiatives designed to
support their safety and well-being. Addressing these areas will bridge existing knowledge

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gaps, informing the development of more inclusive and effective disaster preparedness
strategies.
Conclusion
While a future shortage of working-age adults presents challenges for disaster
preparedness, the research suggests that older adults themselves hold significant potential as
active participants in these efforts. There is an untapped resource within the older adult
community, as they demonstrate both a willingness and ability to contribute to their
preparedness and support their peers when engaged effectively. Community-level initiatives
that increase social capital and empower older adults to take part in disaster preparedness
without waiting for policy or economic shifts present a practical approach to strengthening
resilience. By implementing interventions such as a local emergency leadership corps,
intergenerational and peer resilience partnerships, and community currency volunteer
programs, community leaders, non-government organizations, and volunteers are equipped
with evidence-based approaches to proactively safeguard their more vulnerable members and
foster stronger social networks.
This study calls for future research to address key knowledge gaps by incorporating
larger, more diverse samples, especially focusing on isolated individuals. It also highlights
the need to prioritize participatory decision-making, ensuring older adults are equal
contributors to initiatives supporting their safety and well-being. However, certain
limitations, including small sample sizes, participant selection bias, and limited cultural
representation, restrict the generalizability of existing findings. Further research is needed to
bridge gaps and provide empirical support for the proposed interventions. Despite these
limitations, this study offers a roadmap for actionable, community-based strategies that
enhance the preparedness and resilience of older adults, setting the foundation for continued
exploration and improvement.

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