IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

1

How Does Intimate Partner Violence Formal Support Services Differentiate Between Male
and Female Victims in Vancouver, British Columbia?

Evan Major
J0367750
Bachelor of Law Enforcement Studies, Justice Institute of British Columbia

Author Note
This paper was completed on April 28th, 2025 for LAWS 4003: Research Project in part
of the final Capstone Project, instructed by Kelsea Perry. This paper is 5,726 words.

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

2

Abstract
Intimate partner violence (IPV) can affect anyone regardless of age, sex, gender, financial status,
culture, or religion. A lack of information, support services, and inclusivity within such create
barriers for IPV victims finding appropriate resources to best suit their needs and reduce
revictimization at the hands of an offender. This research aims to understand the differences in
formal support services between male and female victims within Vancouver, British Columbia.
Using secondary research, scholarly, peer-reviewed journal articles were collected to analyze
current trends and find gaps within the literature. Current gaps within IPV data show a lack of
consensus on defining terms and theories, hidden figure male data, and stigma being the biggest
component to preventing help-seeking initiatives. Results showed that enhanced education,
precise allocation and review of community funding, and alternative reporting mechanisms
create steps toward enhanced care and safety of victims.
Keywords: Intimate partner violence, formal support services, law enforcement, gender,
stigma, criminal justice system

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

3

Table of Contents
Abstract ....................................................................................................................2
How Does Intimate Partner Violence Formal Support Services Differentiate Between Male and
Female Victims in Vancouver, British Columbia? .............................................................. 4
Literature Review .......................................................................................................6
Conflicting Theories ................................................................................................................... 6
Men are Hidden Figures.............................................................................................................. 7
Defining Victim........................................................................................................................... 8
Stigma Prevents Seeking Help .................................................................................................... 9
Methodology............................................................................................................ 10
Results .................................................................................................................... 12
Enhanced Education.................................................................................................................. 12
Allocated Community Funding................................................................................................. 14
Alternative Routes to Seeking Help .......................................................................................... 16
Discussion ............................................................................................................... 17
Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 19
Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 20
References ............................................................................................................... 22
Appendix ................................................................................................................ 26

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

4

How Does Intimate Partner Violence Formal Support Services Differentiate Between Male
and Female Victims in Vancouver, British Columbia?
Across Canada nearly 600 shelters are in place for intimate partner violence victims, with
only four percent of them serving men (Blaff, 2024). Blaff, (2024) shares the story of Matt; a
male domestic violence victims’ hardship in finding safety, security, and help for himself and his
children in Toronto, Ontario. Numerous men and women throughout Canada face the same
troubles of escaping intimate partner violence (IPV) situations, with just over 117,000 victims
aged 12 or older in 2022 police-reported data (Government of Canada, 2024). Although Matt’s
experience explains only one case, it may leave other Canadians questioning the support offered
in their communities. The aim of this study is to seek strategies of implementing future and
adjusting current support services to mitigate revictimization of female and male victims. Given
this, the research question posed is: How does intimate partner violence formal support services
differentiate between male and female victims in the Vancouver area?
I currently work within the Vancouver criminal courthouse, specifically dealing with the
in-custody bail hearing process. Through my experiences, I have witnessed a multitude of IPV
victims looking to seek help, understand the criminal justice system, and their role within the
process. The story of Matt and his children allowed me to reflect on what I have witnessed
within the greater Vancouver area from a small lens. For this reason, I chose to expand upon
formal support services and help explain how current methods can be altered to alleviate the
pressures that victims face.
Police response to intimate partner violence has shifted through 3 phases since first
responding to calls in the 1960’s. The first phase; traditional response, did not recognize familial
violence of any kind as a social issue. (Hendricks & Hendricks, 2014). For this reason, police

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

5

response was considered non-involvement. The consensus became that fights were natural and to
be expected in relationships, violence was a normal male response, and non-legal remedies of
resolving the issue was preferred. Common law enforcement response methods were to bring the
situation to a normal level and leave quickly. This method was deployed until the 1970’s when
criticism from researchers demanded police accountability. The service perspective focused on
providing police with adequate training to improve relationships between social service agencies,
improve police attitudes toward family crisis intervention, create officer safety, and develop
necessary skills to deal with the crises. However, further criticism ensued as research found that
the service perspective focused heavily on the perpetrator instead of the victim and discretionary
powers often led to non-intervention tactics being deployed. To combat this, the arrest
perspective of the late 1980’s posed guidelines of when arrests would become mandatory
(Hendricks & Hendricks, 2014). Canada has now fully adopted the mandatory arrest policy
nationwide on any circumstance that a domestic violence call is received (Perrott, et al., 1997).
Since adapting from the arrest perspective law enforcement today use the mandatory arrest, as
well as dual arrest in circumstances that require it, and more focus on the needs of the immediate
victim (Hendricks & Hendricks, 2014). Canada’s police response has taken large steps toward
helping victims of IPV, but more methods are to be implemented to create gender-inclusive help
with all victims.
The research report analyzes how enhanced education, allocated funding, and other
methods to help-seeking can provide a wider scope of formal support services to IPV victims. A
secondary data research approach of scholarly journal articles will provide the base for thematic
analysis. The thematic analysis will allow comparable and contrasting themes to emerge. These
themes will determine the results of the research paper. Finally, the strengths, weaknesses, and

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

6

recommendations for future research will providing an encompassing view to the results
concluded.

Literature Review
Through extensive research with secondary, peer-reviewed, scholarly journal articles
common conclusions within the field of IPV victims’ needs are to be discussed. Conflicting
theories surfaced regarding the use of gender theories and the inability to define “victim” for
male IPV survivors. Furthermore, an overall agreement led to seeing that male victims are not
within a minority of victims, but rather a hidden figure. Finally, stigma throughout all articles is
mentioned as a barrier in providing victims of either gender with the help required. These topics
are discussed within this literature review in further detail.
Conflicting Theories
A contradicting discovery throughout the analysis of articles discussing IPV victims was
the conflicting theories used in approaching data and research for male and female IPV victims.
Most research frame IPV experiences as gender-specific which creates an immediate divide. This
idea is further pushed as most of the research conducted on IPV victims from a broad perspective
looks at only female victims. Reis et al. (2024) focus on gender role conflict, in which restrictive
gender roles devalue others or self and affects the attitude toward help-seeking initiatives. This is
noted as common in both men and women. Gender symmetry further divides victims in which
violence is perpetuated by both men and women through situational couple violence. Although
this theory is popular it is widely debated as to how it affects statistics in who is more a victim
due to measuring acts of self-defence, overlooking injury severity, and the suitability of a conflict

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER
tactics scale. Alternatively, gender asymmetry seen in intimate terrorism, labels men as the
primary perpetrator (Fagerlund, 2021; Roebuck, et al., 2023).
Gender symmetry is polarized by feminist scholars who resist this theory and see it as
diminishing a women’s experience with IPV. Rather, feminist scholars focus on the centrality of
gender in women’s experiences with violence and the gender paradigm, where men perpetuate
violence against women in defence of the patriarchy (Hine, et al., 2022; Roebuck et al., 2023).
Lysova and Dim (2022) study cautions the use of the gender paradigm, as it can affect the
beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of professionals providing research on the matter and those who
use that research to create formal support services. This is concluded through institutional
barriers that victims can face from police, professional court members, and child custody
services.
Men are Hidden Figures
While these theories lead the way in research for IPV victims, men seem to experience a
common occurrence of being noted as hidden figures of violence. Often showing low rating for
police reports, men come closer to equal in victimization surveys surrounding IPV involvement
(Fagerlund, 2021). Data highlights that men were not considered service consumers in IPV
besides as the perpetrators and when men are reaching out for help it is often to friends and
family members, further hiding the true number of male victims (Tsui et al., 2010; Reis et al.,
2024). It is noted that most men do not come forward as being victims of IPV out of fear or
actual reality of being mislabeled as the perpetrator of such violence. Other fears that prevent
men coming forward to report can be due to financial instability, employment status, or fear of
losing custody of children (Fagerlund, 2021; Lysova,& Dim, 2022). Reporting IPV can be
difficult for both men and women as stigma continues to cloud criminal justice personnel

7

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

8

judgments. Male victims only increase in the use of formal services once IPV has reached a
severe level, in turn denoting the number of true victims there may be if many men do not face
violence past the “threshold” they have individually defined as severe (Lysova,& Dim, 2022).
Another factor that contributes to men being hidden within IPV victim data appears as the
inability to define being a victim.
Defining Victim
Defining “victim” in relation to male and female victims differed drastically.
Traditionally, men have experienced the pressure to conform and present masculinity through
emotional resilience, physical strength, and controlling behavior which goes against those of
femineity. When these traditional standards are internalized, this can impact the intent to seek
help (Reis et al., 2024). This is especially prevalent regarding reporting to law enforcement, as
police are commonly described as powerful, aggressive, and masculine (Fagerlund, 2021). This
creates internal restraints of not wanting to appear weak within the eyes of a profession deemed
hyper-masculine. This creates male victims that minimize the severity of the violence faced due
to lack of information and education showcasing men being labelled as “victims” in IPV (Reis et
al., 2024). Oftentimes, male victims refrain from seeking help as a “victim” preferring to see
themselves as a “survivor” as they are actively resisting IPV until the conflict becomes extreme
(Lysova & Dim, 2022). The survivor mentality places feelings of shame and unawareness on the
victim leaving many men feel that police forces are not a guarantee in providing adequate
treatment. Due to internal and external judgment male victims feel as though this is a situation
that could be handled independently and fear of reaching out conflicts with traditional
masculinity. This pattern of fear is cyclical and can result in higher risks of IPV and risks of
being a target of emasculating and homophobic comments from others (Reis et al., 2024).

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

9

Stigma Prevents Seeking Help
Both men and women have experienced stigma at any point within IPV when dealing
with formal services and there are differences and similarities between such genders. Prior to
reporting to police both men and women find there is a lack of education and information in
what constitutes violence and what resources are available that best suit the needs of their
circumstance. Once reported to a formal service, men felt as though their experience was
disregarded by authorities. Overall, victims felt as though police did not provide a genderresponsive service (Reis et al., 2024). This is proven through female victims often obtaining
support service recommendations from police in comparison to their male counterparts
(Fagerlund, 2021).
In Canada a reported 56 percent of women and 20 percent of men sought formal support
services. Institutional responses from the criminal justice system delegitimize IPV experiences
that are attached to a cultural stigma of femineity and masculinity. Factors such as employment,
education status, and bearing children also showed adverse effects on the treatment received
within the criminal justice system and in a formal community response. For example, men who
were facing abuse and were employed were often exposed to a broader social network which
increases the chance for contacting formal agencies in contrast to men who are unemployed.
Female victims with no children faced more gender bias than those women who were bearing
children, as they were seen as less of a victim from one woman to another. (Lysova,& Dim,
2022; Roebuck et al., 2023).
If victims are opting for formal help within their community such as shelters, hotlines,
counselling, or other services there is still limitations put in place by stigma. Women are finding
that shelters are at capacity leaving nowhere to turn if family or friends are not an option. Men

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

10

also face gender bias and find a lack of community level resources for their needs. This stems
from the adherence to traditional gender roles and not being able to recognize themselves as
targets of violence. In turn, this creates fear of being labelled as an aggressor, loss of custody
with children due to entrenched ideology of stereotypes in men naturing children and
delegitimizing their experience further discouraging seeking help (Lysova,& Dim, 2022;
Fagerlund, 2021; Hine et al., 2022).

Methodology
To best understand the scope of IPV formal support services I have chosen a
transformative worldview. Creswell and Creswell (2018) describes a transformative worldview
as intertwining research inquiry with political action to reform social oppressions for those
facing it and institutions working within it. This research focuses on the current formal support
services offered within Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada and what other resources can be
implemented to reach the needs of victims within this domain. The city of Vancouver
encompasses a population of roughly 660,000 residents, allowing for a large demographic
(Statistics Canada, 2022). Due to the nature and confines of a 14-week course, this study will be
limited to the use of secondary data. With the use of secondary data there are limitations to
address. In using secondary data, the results from this research are subject to the access, quality,
and data structure provided through the sources obtained. Data validity and ethical issues from
prior research articles limit the sample. The nature of IPV can come with ethical issues due to
sensitivity and information of a criminal matter. Literature chosen for review can often contain
sensitive data from prior research raising concern for privacy and anonymity of sample
populations. Finally, the specificity is limited by the chosen geographical location, specifically
Vancouver, Canada. As IPV within Canada is a research field that has not thoroughly been

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

11

researched upon throughout recent decades. To combat this, research done within countries such
as the United States, Western Europe, and Australia were used due to similar criminal justice
system practices and standards. This also helps to provide a wide variety of ideas that are
implemented in these countries that can be adjusted to fit the needs of Canadian victims.
To narrow down the search of literature studied, I chose to focus on scholarly peerreviewed articles with a publication date between 2005 and 2025. Although this date range is
large this was to encompass research done on both male and female victims, as my initial search
with smaller date ranges did not provide sufficient sources. I first began my search in the JIBC
EBSCO library database to find a broad range of databases that can be used for the search of
articles. Upon my first search in APA PsycINFO, I used the keywords “intimate partner
violence” and “gender” with the prior mentioned inclusion criteria to yield 15,234 search results.
After reviewing different articles under this keyword search, I reviewed the keywords noted
within those articles and concluded to add another keyword being “support services”. This
generated 239 results, however, this seemed small considering there was not enough parameters
listed in the keywords to close in on the topic of IPV. I continued to add various keywords to
refine the search parameters while still upholding the date range and scholarly, peer-reviewed
articles as noted features for literature to examine. My final search, shown in the Appendix,
yielded 19 results with the following keywords used: "intimate partner violence" or "domestic
violence" or "partner abuse", "gender-inclusive", "services or programs or intervention or
resources", and "North America" or Canada or "United States". The term “gender” was replaced
by “gender-inclusive” to foster search results that iterate the importance of support services to
both help and highlight the similarities and differences between male and female resources.
Including “North America, Canada, and United States” provided a smaller range of articles that

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

12

speak to similar demographic issues victims find in relation to the research question location.
Articles chosen for the literature review were sourced through the following databases:
PsycINFO, Academic Search Complete, and SocINDEX with Full Text.
A full review of the fifteen articles selected provided research from a qualitative and
quantitative perspective to ensure a vast framework in comparing data. Validity is ensured
through the analysis of scholarly peer-reviewed journal articles. Various articles also referenced
each other within their findings and discussions or had the same author throughout multiple
articles. For example, Lysova, A. worked on 3 journal articles I had chosen pertaining to
qualitative and quantitative approaches to the research. Finally, the evaluated articles research
took place within the United States, Canada, United Kingdom and other Western European
countries. This is significant to the research as it allows for accuracy by cross-referencing
empirical data in North America and other European countries. From the thematic analysis I was
able to draw conclusions on what can be done to move forward in research and institutions of
formal services in providing IPV victims accommodation to help.

Results
The extrapolated themes examined within the literature review highlight the importance of
issues within current IPV research and raise results as to how formal support services can be
improved. The current results discuss the driving force of enhanced education, allocated funding,
multi-applicable resources, and communication between such.
Enhanced Education
As noted through various researchers, gender biases prevent help seeking initiatives in IPV
victims. To combat this, researchers have suggested the push toward education on the topic.

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

13

Education can be broken down into three various types: individual, communal, and institutional.
Articles discussed that victims often lack information within their community on how to obtain
help and what constitutes as IPV no matter the gender of the victim (Sui et al., 2010; Hine et al.,
2022). Education at the individual level provides victims with an understanding of the criminal
justice legislation in place, knowledge of their rights and role within reporting, and
deconstructing stigma showing anyone can become a victim. This in turn, can encourage
reporting that allows for more data to be collected in understanding what steps are still missing
(Perrotta Berlin et al, 2024). An effective solution to promoting this education can be by using
public service announcements (PSAs). These are advertisements that communicate social issues
with the goal of changing attitudes and behaviours on the topic at hand. Although the harsh
digital media often used in PSAs can be jarring to viewers it leaves a lasting imprint in the mind
and creates a connection to the cause that is being advocated for (Mo & Zhou, 2024). PSAs are a
successful communication method to share information quickly and effectively with victims in a
broad community.
Community support services such as individual and group counselling, shelters, and aid
have presented biases towards IPV victims, specifically male victims due to hidden data figures
misrepresenting them. Support services may turn men away if they do not support them within
the space, rely on entry if other commodities such as employment are given up, or cannot
recognize men as victims altogether (Hines et al., 2022). Removing stigma can be sought
through training programs such as VEGA’s TVIC, Creating Safety module. This module ensures
that the multiple layers of trauma and varying violence that is disproportionately experienced in
some communities’ can be identified and responded to through an influenced approach. (Wekerle
et al., 2022). The learning module uses an “environment, approach, and response” model to

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

14

educate healthcare and social service providers but, can be expanded to inform non-profit or
government funded organizations that support IPV victims, further promoting the availability of
victims in seeking help (Wekerle et al., 2022, p. 3).
Institutions such as the law enforcement and criminal justice personnel require further
training like those at a community level as these are often the first forms of formal support
reached by victims. Mentioned prior, law enforcement have fallen short on gender-inclusive
training in supporting male victims when reporting IPV, by not believing the victim, assuming
they are the perpetrator, and not providing other resources for them to access throughout their
process in the criminal justice system (Fagerlund, 2021). A need for specialized training that
incorporates community partnership and review of agency policies can be beneficial. This
provides feedback directly to police on their own biases they may bring to emergency IPV
encounters and what other investigative steps can be taken to provide victims with the best
assistance in preventing revictimization (Blaney, 2010). A change in perspective can be
beneficial to gaining a complete understanding in IPV victim experiences. Gill et al. (2021)
noted in a study on police IPV knowledge that law enforcement personnel often adopt a
conventional view of IPV through naming conventions and definitions provided within the
Canadian criminal code. This narrows the focus to the incident itself and does not recognize
other complex nuances associated with IPV that can be missed. As an example, an officer may
recognize no signs of injury on a victim, yet significant efforts to control the victim are evident at
the scene and missed in the investigation (Gill et al., 2021).
Allocated Community Funding
It has been seen often that community funding has been enacted, yet there is little to
evaluate its effectiveness. City of Vancouver’s 2024 budget breakdown discussed plans to create

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

15

single room occupancy (SRO) investment strategies and provide continued support to wraparound services (City of Vancouver, 2024). A risk, need, and responsivity model (RNR) has been
previously used to assess IPV offender treatment through three phases. Risk implies that an
offender should be matched to an appropriate service to their risk level. Needs refers to an
offenders criminogenic or non-criminogenic needs. Support for either form of needs is provided
to alter it on the basis that lowering this need will reduce recidivism. Finally, responsivity
dictates which interventions are employed (Giesbrecht, 2023). A similar assessment model could
be used to interpret what current programs are working within communities for IPV victims. By
providing a step-by-step process as to the various aspects that can affect a victim’s ability to seek
help, it can help create data that shows where community funding should be appropriately
allocated to create changes in those areas.
Allocating community funding effectively has been practiced for decades. The first cases
of this stemmed from Duluth, Minnesota in the mid-1980’s, who implemented the concept of
community coordination specifically for IPV. Community coordination is still used today as a
formalized system of collaboration between service agencies within a community. From the
perspective of IPV, the main priority is safety of survivors and accountability of perpetrators.
This method recognizes that a victim’s lack of economic security is often a main factor in not
being able to achieve safety from an abuser. Expanding community support systems to include
employers of victims can increase economic security to address social morality about IPV in a
workplace (Pennington-Zoellner, 2009). This can be especially important for male victims as a
workspace may provide a more comfortable environment with familiar assets to reach out to than
an unknown organization.

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

16

Alternative Routes to Seeking Help
In Hine et al. (2022) study, confidentiality was crucial to many male victims in reporting
the violence they were facing. Similarly, other studies proposed the idea that male victims would
not refer to themselves as such due to shame and embarrassment (Fagerlund, 2021; Lysova,&
Dim, 2022; Reis et al., 2024). I propose from these conclusions that offering other avenues for
victims to report IPV can be beneficial for themselves and communities as it can provide
additional data on victims reaching out for help. For example, Vancouver Police Department
currently employs an option to report crimes against property through an online portal. This
creates a police file through answering basic questions surrounding the initial circumstance of
the crime committed (Admin1, 2021). Creating a similar web portal for IPV victims may help
those that are unable to reach out during dire circumstances or feel more comfortable with
reporting anonymously in the first step of the criminal justice process. This opportunity allows
for exploration and opens the doors for victims to disclose details they may not want to discuss
with a police officer in person. With the right safeguards in place, two-way dyadic follow-ups,
allow for risks to be assessed and anonymity can be adjusted later within reporting stages after
initial follow-up (Elphick et al., 2021).
Training of law enforcement officers in gender-inclusive tactics to understanding the
nuances of IPV is important, however other first responder fields should also be trained to report
IPV circumstances. Medical mandated reporting has become common practice throughout the
United States wherein a “health care practitioner who treats a person brought into a health care
facility or clinic who is suffering from specified injuries is to report that fact immediately, to the
local law enforcement authorities” (Gwinn et al., 2024, p.9). A health care practitioner includes
practices such as nurses, doctors, psychiatrists, dentists, chiropractors, paramedics and much

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

17

more. Practitioners that oppose this mandate often describe that it can violate victim autonomy
and may prevent a victim from seeking needed medical attention out of fear of reporting.
However, mandated reporting can be used as a tool for early intervention before IPV victim
circumstances evolve into serious injury or death (Gwinn et al., 2024). The likelihood of direct
advocacy for victims and offender accountability also increases; specifically, those that may be
considered high-risk victims, such as an individual faced with brain injury due to traumatic
strangulation (Gwinn et al., 2024). The implementation of medical mandated reporting may be
an effective tool for male victims as many do not report until they reach a serious injury
threshold that may require medical attention.

Discussion
A vast amount of data has been sourced through the literature review of secondary,
scholarly, peer-reviewed journal articles. The chosen date range of 2005 to 2025 impacted the
results of the research as some articles analyzed may not account for emerging theories used in
studying IPV and the inclusion of male victims. However, the date range chosen provided a wide
range of sources from various countries as Canada currently does not supply a broad range of
data pertaining to the specificity of this research. For this reason, research studies from the
United States and Western European countries have also been used to provide a scope of
information on IPV victims and formal support services. With this can come varying differences
in definitions, legislation, and criminal justice procedures that can alter the data collection
standards in comparison to Canada. This can also be looked at as positive change to compare
what strategies are being employed effectively in other demographics like that of Canada.
The limitations of a 14-week course does not employ the use of primary data collection
for a topic of such complexity, as there are factors that are not discussed within this research that

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

18

could also affect the results obtained. The reliance on secondary resources can lack specificity to
the overall gap in research. The research was focused within Vancouver, Canada as the city
encompasses a wide majority of victims from various cultures, ethnicities, and traditions that all
require varying needs. While this is important, this research does not speak to the efficacy of
formal support services to varying genders in remote cities within British Columbia or other
regions of the country. Furthermore, IPV is characterized as the victimization of a person with
which they have or had an intimate relationship with (Reis et al., 2024). Although not directly
stated anyone can be a victim of IPV whether between female and male, same-sex, or
transgender partners. This research exclusively focused on opposite sex couple violence which
may having differing needs or responses to IPV than same-sex or transgender partner violence
victims.
For future research endeavours I would employ primary research as it allows all data
obtained to directly answer the gaps in literature to the specific geographical region I am focused
on. I would use a mixed methods approach to gain a qualitative and quantitative understanding of
the data. To obtain quantitative data, I would send surveys to formal support community services
for IPV victims, such as shelters, counselling, and therapy practices. The surveys would focus on
questions that understand what gender-inclusive practices are currently implemented within the
support programs, if any. Contact with the Vancouver police department would be used to
conduct in-person focus group interviews. The open space of focus group interviews may allow
questions to be answered freely and built upon. Topics of focus within the setting would pertain
to what gender-inclusive training looks like, how IPV, formal support, victimization, and other
facets associated with IPV are defined, and stigmas and myths persist within a law enforcement
framework that prevent safe and responsive practices to victims in need.

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

19

Recommendations
Knowledge gaps still exist within Canadian IPV literature. This is due to a lack of
research conducted within Canada. Through this research, it has been noted that complexities in
gender theories, hidden figure male victim data, defining victim, and stigma prevent barriers in
formal support services to reach the target audience. Within other research subjects it is rare
where men are the minority sample population. However, the IPV field of research should focus
to promote gender-inclusive studies, as focusing on mostly female victims promotes the stigma
of men being invisible data figures. A common gap that should be explored through future
research is the lack of information surrounding policies and institutions affecting IPV victims.
Policies such as peace bonds; a document that ensures the person assigned to the peace bond will
keep within good peace of the individual who is the victim, is vital to preventing revictimization
at an institutional level. Peace bonds are often used in IPV files as it applies for up to one year
and provides conditions to which an offender must abide by (Government of British Columbia,
2025). A study on prior cases wherein peace bonds or similar protection orders for victims were
used may help to understand the efficacy in the use of such provisions and if they are preventing
revictimization and offender accountability. Like most responses from the criminal justice
system and community formal support services, actions are taken from a reactive measure.
Research into preventative measures, such as understanding the warning signs of IPV may
provide further clarity for victims and law enforcement personnel as to steps that can be taken
before severe violence occurs.
Much research is still to take place within Canadian IPV victim populations. Future
research should look to focus on including other demographics of IPV victims such as those
within same-sex relationships or transgender domestic violence. Canada is often defined as a

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

20

multi-cultural country. Vancouver withholds a current population of roughly 660,000 residents,
just over half of which are considered visible minorities (Statistics Canada, 2022). Focus on
racial or cultural stigma within criminal justice institutions, law enforcement personnel, and
community support services should also be studied to identify the impact this has in comparison
to gender biases. Furthermore, a quarter of Vancouver residents identified non-official; French or
English, languages as the mother tongue within their household (Statistics, 2022). Research on
communication barriers can aid ways of help-seeking in a multi-linguistic community. Specific
to Canada, would be the importance of researching data on Indigenous victims. Throughout
Canada, more than 1.8 million people currently identify as Indigenous, comprising 5 percent of
Canada’s total population and expected to grow within coming years (Catherine et al., 2025).
Indigenous women specifically have faced higher rates of IPV, related to multi-generational
trauma, historical outcomes of colonization, and forced assimilation (Rizkalla et al., 2020).
Attention to the allocated formal services of Indigenous people can provide better needs to risk
factors that affect them within remote or dense locations.

Conclusion
Intimate partner violence is the most common form of gender-based violence around the
world (Rizkalla et al., 2020). Specific focus to Vancouver, Canada’s multi-cultural and dense
population sheds light to the missing information found in Canadian IPV research. A secondary
research approach allowed for literature review of scholarly, peer-reviewed articles to find the
current gaps. This has uncovered conclusions in research that require further investigation.
Conflicting gender theories require further discussion to provide consensus that one may not be
better than another, rather it provides a different lens to analyze data. Defining the term “victim”
within male IPV survivors can contribute to the number of hidden figure data, further stretching

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

21

gaps within current literature. Understanding the major impacts of unconscious stigma in
preventing help is a major component in the differences of formal IPV victim services. Further
analysis of secondary research and the implementation of other scholarly resources provide
results that can create steps in gender-inclusive support services attending to all victim needs.
Attention to enhanced education on stigma and violence recognizance can be impactful at an
individual, communal, and institutional level. Collaborative approaches and inclusion of thirdparty support such as employers of victims adds an additional way to report. Programs that can
be successfully reviewed for performance enhancement allows for victim voices to be shared and
careful allocation of community funding to support it. Expanding lines of communication creates
comfortability in the first step of seeking help and broadens education on IPV to other first
responder fields. In doing so, an increase in police reports can lead to more data to be analyzed
and further strengthen current and incoming services in place.
Recommendations look toward researchers within Canada and institutions to provide
clarity, funding, and enhanced training on gender-inclusive practices. This is to ensure formal
support services reach broader communities. Future research can expand upon the current
similarities and differences found within IPV support services by focusing on other factors of
victim demographics. Language, culture, race, and relation can play intertwining roles on the
type of service needed for victims and may have varying needs compared to gender alone.
Further focus on Indigenous IPV victims in relation to the multi-generational trauma may
provide support to culturally sensitive healing programs. Although more research, data, and time
is to be collected, understanding the differences in current formal support services takes a step
forward in providing adequate and well-rounded help to prevent revictimization, enhance
community relations and improve biases toward victims.

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

22

References
Admin1. (2021). Report a crime- Vancouver Police Department. Vancouver Police Department.
https://vpd.ca/faqs/
Blaff, A.D. (2024). Inside the hidden world of male victims of domestic abuse. National Post.
https://nationalpost.com/feature/male-victims-of-domestic-abuse
Blaney, E. (2010). Police officers & apos: Views of specialized intimate partner violence
training. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 33(2),
354–375. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639511011044939
Catherine, N. L. A., Leason, J., Marsden, N., Barker, B., Cullen, A., Simpson, A., Berry, B. A.,
Mohns, E., Yung, D., Zheng, Y., MacMillan, H., & Waddell, C. (2025). Understanding
the experiences of young, urban, Indigenous mothers-to-be in British Columbia,
Canada. BMC Pregnancy & Childbirth, 25(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-02407070-1
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and
Mixed Methods Approaches (5th ed.). SAGE Publications Ltd.
https://spada.uns.ac.id/pluginfile.php/510378/mod_resource/content/1/creswell.pdf
Elphick, C., Philpot, R., Zhang, M., Stuart, A., Walkington, Z., Frumkin, L. A., Pike, G.,
Gardner, K., Lacey, M., Levine, M., Price, B., Bandara, A., & Nuseibeh, B. (2021).
Building trust in digital policing: A scoping review of community policing apps. Police
Practice & Research: An International Journal, 22(5), 1469–1491.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2020.1861449
Fagerlund, M. (2021). Gender and police response to domestic violence. Police Practice &
Research, 22(1), 90–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2020.1749622

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

23

Giesbrecht, C. J., Edmonds, T. F., & Bruer, K. C. (2023). A survey of intimate partner violence
intervention programs in Saskatchewan, Canada. Canadian Psychology / Psychologie
Canadienne, 64(2), 93–106. https://doi.org/10.1037/cap0000348
Gill, C., Campbell, M. A., & Ballucci, D. (2021). Police officers’ definitions and understandings
of intimate partner violence in New Brunswick, Canada. Police Journal, 94(1), 20–39.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0032258X19876974
Government of British Columbia. (2025). What is a peace bond and how do I get one? Province of British Columbia. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/lifeevents/divorce/family-justice/keeping-your-family-safe/peace-bond
Government of Canada. (2024). Fact sheet: Intimate partner violence.
https://www.canada.ca/en/women-gender-equality/gender-based-violence/intimatepartner-violence.html
Gwinn, C., Strack, G., & Bilyeu, J. (2024). Why medical mandated reporting of domestic
violence still matters. Family & Intimate Partner Violence Quarterly, 16(3), 7–18.
Hendricks, J. E., & Hendricks, C. S. (2014). Crisis intervention in criminal justice/social service.
Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Ltd.
https://books.google.ca/books?id=Rn7CCAAAQBAJ&printsec=copyright&redir_esc=y#
v=onepage&q&f=false
Hine, B., Wallace, S., & Bates, E. A. (2022). Understanding the profile and needs of abused
men: Exploring call data from a male domestic violence charity in the United
Kingdom. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(17–18), NP16992-NP17022.
https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211028014

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

24

Lysova, A., & Dim, E. E. (2022). Severity of victimization and formal help seeking among men
who experienced intimate partner violence in their ongoing relationships. Journal of
Interpersonal Violence, 37(3–4), 1404–1429. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520922352
Mo, Z., & Zhou, M. (2024). Don’t like them but take what they said: The effectiveness of virtual
influencers in public service announcements. Journal of Theoretical & Applied
Electronic Commerce Research, 19(3), 2269–2288.
https://doi.org/10.3390/jtaer19030110
Pennington-Zoellner, K. (2009). Expanding ‘community’ in the community response to intimate
partner violence. Journal of family violence, 24(8), 539-545.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10896-009-9252-5
Perrotta Berlin, M., Campa, P., Krūmiņa, M., Paltseva, E., Pluta, A., & Shpak, S. (2024).
Domestic violence legislation. Awareness and support in Latvia, Russia and
Ukraine. Baltic Journal of Economics, 24(2), 319–336.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1406099X.2024.2426920
Perrott, S. B., Miller, Y. M., & Delaney, M. E. (1997). Attitudes towards the mandatory arrest
response to domestic battering: Gender and institutional differences from a traditional
and a women’s university. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 2(Part 1), 35–49.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8333.1997.tb00331.x
Reis, E., Moleiro, C., & Arriaga, P. (2024). Intimate partner violence directed at men:
Experiences of violence, help-seeking, and potential gender role conflict among
Portuguese men. Sexuality & Culture: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly, 28(1), 21–40.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-023-10108-9

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

25

Rizkalla, K., Maar, M., Pilon, R., McGregor, L., & Reade, M. (2020). Improving the response of
primary care providers to rural First Nation women who experience intimate partner
violence: a qualitative study. BMC Women’s Health, 20(1), 209.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-020-01053-y
Roebuck, B. S., McGlinchey, D., Lysova, A. V., Hastie, K., & Taylor, M. (2023). Similar but
different: Intimate partner violence experienced by women and men. Journal of Family
Violence. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-023-00497-8
Statistics Canada. (2022). Profile table, Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population – Vancouver,
City (CY) [Census subdivision], British Columbia. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/censusrecensement/2021/dppd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&SearchText=Vancouver&DGUIDlist=2021A0005591
5022&GENDERlist=1&STATISTIClist=1&HEADERlist=0
Tsui, V., Cheung, M., & Leung, P. (2010). Help-seeking among male victims of partner abuse:
Men’s hard times. Journal of Community Psychology, 38(6), 769–780.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20394
Wekerle, C., McQueen, K.C.D., Barker, B., Acai, A., Smith, S., Allice, I., & Kimber, M. (2022).
Indigenous service provider perspectives of an online education module to support safe
clinical encounters about family violence in Canada. International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(23).
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192316061

IPV SUPPORT SERVICE DIFFERENCES & GENDER

26

Appendix
Database

Search Term(s)

Search Results

APA PsycInfo

"Intimate partner violence" and "gender"

15,234

APA PsycInfo

"Intimate partner violence", "gender" and

239

"support services"

APA PsycInfo

"Intimate partner violence", "gender" and

7,893

"services or programs or intervention or
resources"

APA PsycInfo

"Intimate partner violence", "gender",

591

"services or programs or intervention or
resources" and "police officers" or "law
enforcement" or cops or police

APA PsycInfo

"Intimate partner violence", "gender",

118

"services or programs or intervention or
resources" and "police officers" or "law
enforcement" or cops or police and "North
America" or Canada or "United States"

APA PsycInfo

"Intimate partner violence" or "domestic
violence" or "partner abuse" and "genderinclusive" and "services or programs or
intervention or resources" and "North
America" or Canada or "United States"

19